PORTION: Behar  Leviticus 25:1-26:2/Bechukotai  Leviticus 26:3-27:34[1]

OUTLINE:

•  Leviticus 25:1-7           The seventh-year land Sabbath
• Leviticus 25:8-17         The Jubilee year
• Leviticus 25:18-24       The blessings of the land
• Leviticus 25:25-31       The redemption of land and property
• Leviticus 25:32-34       The redemption of Levitical land and property
• Leviticus 25:35-55       The redemption of the people of Israel
• Leviticus 26:1-2           No idols; keeping the Sabbath; reverencing the sanctuary

• Leviticus 26:3-13         The blessings of obedience
• Leviticus 26:14-46       The curses of disobedience
• Leviticus 27:1-34         Keeping vows of consecration

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1.  What two sources make up the bulk of Leviticus?
2. What is the narrow focus of the P source material?
3. What is the broad focus of the H source material?
4. How does the H source material understandIsrael’s calling?
5. What other biblical story addresses the difference between the P and H sources?
6. How do the people ofIsraelembody holiness in their daily lives?
7. What marks the land as holy?
8. What can we learn from the seventh-year land Sabbath and the Jubilee year?
9. Why are we to redeem the land and the people?
10. Why does Leviticus end with a teaching on fulfilling vows?

TEACHING:

 The majority of the material that makes up the book of Vayiqra or Leviticus comes from two similar yet distinct sources.  Leviticus 1-16 is largely, though not exclusively, made up of Priestly (P) source material.  Leviticus 17-27 is predominantly Holiness School (H) material.  While both the P and H sources are concerned with matters of holiness, the two sources can be distinguished from one another by their specific agendas.

 The P source material was written during the reign of King Hezekiah in Judah.  It was during the time of Hezekiah’s reign (722 B.C.E.) that Assyria conquered the northern kingdom of Israel.  Many refugees from the northern kingdom of Israel fled to the southern kingdom of Judah for safety.  These northern refugees, made up of nobles, merchants, and priests, brought with them the stories and traditions preserved and transmitted among the people of Israel.  For 200 years the northern kingdom of Israel worshipped at two temples containing golden calves, celebrated the appointed feasts according to its own festival calendar, and was served by its own non-Aaronic/non-Levitical priesthood.

(1 Kings 12:26-33 NRS) Then Jeroboam said to himself, Now the kingdom may well revert to the house of David.  ²⁷If this people continues to go up to offer sacrifices in the house of YHWH at Jerusalem, the heart of this people will turn again to their master, King Rehoboam of Judah; they will kill me and return to King Rehoboam of Judah.  ²⁸So the king took counsel, and made two calves of gold.  He said to the people, You have gone up to Jerusalem long enough.  Here are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt.  ²⁹He set one in Bethel, and the other he put in Dan.  ³⁰And this thing became a sin, for the people went to worship before the one at Bethel and before the other as far as Dan.  ³¹He also made houses on high places, and appointed priests from among all the people, who were not Levites.  ³²Jeroboam appointed a festival on the fifteenth day of the eighth month like the festival that was in Judah, and he offered sacrifices on the altar; so he did in Bethel, sacrificing to the calves that he had made.  And he placed in Bethel the priests of the high places that he had made.  ³³He went up to the altar that he had made in Bethel on the fifteenth day in the eighth month, in the month that he alone had devised; he appointed a festival for the people of Israel, and he went up to the altar to offer incense.

 (1 Kings 13:33 NRS) Even after this event Jeroboam did not turn from his evil way, but made priests for the high places again from among all the people; any who wanted to be priests he consecrated for the high places.

The unauthorized temples, altars, feasts, and priesthood were understood to be the cause of Israel’s destruction.  The destruction of the northern kingdom and the infusion of northern refugees into Judah and Jerusalem raised great concern for the sanctity of the Temple, the Altar, and the priesthood in Judah.  The P source material reflects the specific concern for protecting the sanctity of the authorized Temple, Altar, Feasts, and priesthood.  While the P material is concerned for the holiness of all the people of Judah and Israel, it is specifically concerned with the impact of Judah and Israel’s holiness (or lack of holiness) upon the Tabernacle.  For the writers of the Priestly source material, the means of life is communion with the Holy One, who provides for and protects the people of Israel with His presence.  This communion is to be enjoyed only by means of the authorized priests performing the authorized rituals at the authorized Altar in the authorized Tabernacle.  The northern kingdom of Israel was destroyed because the people failed to worship in the authorized place with the authorized priests.  The southern kingdom of Judah was spared destruction because the authorized priests performed the authorized rituals in the authorized place and at the authorized times.  Protecting the sanctity of the authorized sanctuary of YHWH from defilement was the primary concern of the priests of Judah.  The Priestly writers teach Israel the proper protocol and distinctions necessary to protect the sanctity of the sanctuary.

 (Leviticus 15:31 NRS) Thus you shall keep the people of Israel separate from their uncleanness, so that they do not die in their uncleanness by defiling My tabernacle that is in their midst.

 (Leviticus 7:20-21 NRS) But those who eat flesh from YHWH’S sacrifice of well-being while in a state of uncleanness shall be cut off from their kin.  ²¹When any one of you touches any unclean thing – human uncleanness or an unclean animal or any unclean creature – and then eats flesh from YHWH’S sacrifice of well-being, you shall be cut off from your kin.

 (Leviticus 16:16 NRS) Thus he shall make atonement for the sanctuary, because of the uncleannesses of the people of Israel, and because of their transgressions, all their sins; and so he shall do for the tent of meeting, which remains with them in the midst of their uncleannesses.

 The distinctions between tahor (clean) and tamei (unclean) as taught in the P source material are specifically directed at protecting the sanctity of the Tabernacle, the Altar, and the priesthood.  According to the P source, there is one way to YHWH, and that is through the authorized priesthood performing the authorized rituals at the authorized Altar in the authorized Tabernacle.  For the P writers this was a matter of national security.  The purity laws – the laws of childbirth in Leviticus 12:1-8, the laws of tsara’at in Leviticus 13:1-13:57, the laws of genital emissions in Leviticus 15:1-30, the laws concerning corpse contamination in Numbers 5:2 and 9:6-7, and even the dietary laws in Leviticus 11:1ff. – are all concerned with protecting the sanctity of the Altar, the Tabernacle, and the priesthood.

 The Holiness School (H) source material is also concerned with the holiness of Israel but in a much broader sense.  For the H source writers, the holiness of all Israel is not specifically limited to its relationship with the Altar, the Temple, or the priesthood; rather, it is concerned for the image, name, and reputation of YHWH.  In the H source material, the people of Israel are the chosen people of YHWH. Israel is specifically associated with YHWH.  Israel is the chosen means by which YHWH is restoring His image and name in the world.  Therefore, Israel is to be holy because YHWH is holy.

 (Leviticus 11:44-45 NRS) For I am YHWH your God; sanctify yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I am holy.  You shall not defile yourselves with any swarming creature that moves on the earth.  ⁴⁵For I am YHWH who brought you up from the land of Egypt, to be your God; you shall be holy, for I am holy.

 (Leviticus 19:2 NRS) Speak to all the congregation of the people of Israel and say to them: You shall be holy, for I YHWH your God am holy.

 (Leviticus 20:7 NRS) Consecrate yourselves therefore, and be holy; for I am YHWH your God.

 (Leviticus 20:26 NRS) You shall be holy to Me; for I YHWH am holy, and I have separated you from the other peoples to be Mine.

 Let us note the particular concern for the name of YHWH.

 (Leviticus 19:12 NRS) And you shall not swear falsely by My name, profaning the name of your God: I am YHWH.

 (Leviticus 22:2 NRS) Direct Aaron and his sons to deal carefully with the sacred donations of the people of Israel, which they dedicate to Me, so that they may not profane My holy name; I am YHWH.

 (Leviticus 22:32 NRS) You shall not profane My holy name, that I may be sanctified among the people of Israel: I am YHWH; I sanctify you.

 The juxtaposition of the teaching on blasphemy with a teaching on murder clearly reveals the Holiness School’s concern with the image of YHWH.

 (Leviticus 24:15-21 NRS) And speak to the people of Israel, saying: Anyone who curses God shall bear the sin.  ¹⁶One who blasphemes the name of YHWH shall be put to death; the whole congregation shall stone the blasphemer.  Aliens as well as citizens, when they blaspheme the Name, shall be put to death.  ¹⁷Anyone who kills a human being shall be put to death.  ¹⁸Anyone who kills an animal shall make restitution for it, life for life.  ¹⁹Anyone who maims another shall suffer the same injury in return: ²⁰fracture for fracture, eye for eye, tooth for tooth; the injury inflicted is the injury to be suffered.  ²¹One who kills an animal shall make restitution for it; but one who kills a human being shall be put to death.

 In the Holiness School material, to blaspheme the name of YHWH is equated with maiming, desecrating, or murdering YHWH’S image or reputation.  This application may be seen as the reverse of the P teaching justifying the prohibition against murder based upon the fact that man was created in the image of God.

 (Genesis 9:4-6 NRS) Only, you shall not eat flesh with its life, that is, its blood.  ⁵For your own lifeblood I will surely require a reckoning: from every animal I will require it and from human beings, each one for the blood of another, I will require a reckoning for human life.  ⁶Whoever sheds the blood of a human, by a human shall that person’s blood be shed; for in His own image God made humankind.

 While the Priestly writers focus narrowly upon the holiness and sanctity of the authorized Temple,  Altar, priesthood, and cultic practices, the Holiness School is concerned with the holiness of all Israel– both the people and the land.  In some sense, the difference between the P source material and the H source material can be seen in the story of the rebellion of Korah.

 (Numbers 16:1-10 NRS) Now Korah son of Izhar son of Kohath son of Levi, along with Dathan and Abiram sons of Eliab, and On son of Peleth – descendants of Reuben – took ²two hundred fifty Israelite men, leaders of the congregation, chosen from the assembly, well-known men, and they confronted Moses.  ³They assembled against Moses and against Aaron, and said to them, You have gone too far!  All the congregation are holy, every one of them, and YHWH is among them.  So why then do you exalt yourselves above the assembly of YHWH?  ⁴When Moses heard it, he fell on his face.  ⁵Then he said to Korah and all his company, In the morning YHWH will make known who is His, and who is holy, and who will be allowed to approach Him; the one whom He will choose He will allow to approach Him.  ⁶Do this: take censers, Korah and all your company, ⁷and tomorrow put fire in them, and lay incense on them before YHWH; and the man whom YHWH chooses shall be the holy one.  You Levites have gone too far!  ⁸Then Moses said to Korah, Hear now, you Levites!  ⁹Is it too little for you that the God of Israel has separated you from the congregation of Israel, to allow you to approach Him in order to perform the duties of YHWH’S tabernacle, and to stand before the congregation and serve them?  ¹⁰He has allowed you to approach Him, and all your brother Levites with you; yet you seek the priesthood as well!

 The story of the rebellion of Korah is told from the perspective of the Priestly writer, protecting the sanctity of the authorized priesthood from the invasion of the Levites.  The conclusion of the story declares the understanding that the descendants of Aaron are the authorized priesthood.  Evident in the statement of the “rebels,” however, is the understanding that all the congregation of Israel is holy.  This is consistent with the Holiness School teaching.  The tension can be resolved by acknowledging with the Holiness School that all Israel is holy, but not all Israel has the same function.  The apostle Shaul addressed this same tension by using the analogy of a body.

 (Romans 12:4-8 NRS) For as in one body we have many members, and not all the members have the same function, ⁵so we, who are many, are one body in Messiah, and individually we are members one of another.  ⁶We have gifts that differ according to the grace given to us: prophecy, in proportion to faith; ⁷ministry, in ministering; the teacher, in teaching; ⁸the exhorter, in exhortation; the giver, in generosity; the leader, in diligence; the compassionate, in cheerfulness.

 (1 Corinthians 12:14-31 NRS) Indeed, the body does not consist of one member but of many.  ¹⁵If the foot would say, Because I am not a hand, I do not belong to the body, that would not make it any less a part of the body.  ¹⁶And if the ear would say, Because I am not an eye, I do not belong to the body, that would not make it any less a part of the body.  ¹⁷If the whole body were an eye, where would the hearing be?  If the whole body were hearing, where would the sense of smell be?  ¹⁸But as it is, God arranged the members in the body, each one of them, as He chose.  ¹⁹If all were a single member, where would the body be?  ²⁰As it is, there are many members, yet one body.  ²¹The eye cannot say to the hand, I have no need of you, nor again the head to the feet, I have no need of you.  ²²On the contrary, the members of the body that seem to be weaker are indispensable, ²³and those members of the body that we think less honorable we clothe with greater honor, and our less respectable members are treated with greater respect; ²⁴whereas our more respectable members do not need this.  But God has so arranged the body, giving the greater honor to the inferior member, ²⁵that there may be no dissension within the body, but the members may have the same care for one another.  ²⁶If one member suffers, all suffer together with it; if one member is honored, all rejoice together with it.  ²⁷Now you are the body of Messiah and individually members of it.  ²⁸And God has appointed in the assembly first apostles, second prophets, third teachers; then deeds of power, then gifts of healing, forms of assistance, forms of leadership, various kinds of tongues.  ²⁹Are all apostles?  Are all prophets?  Are all teachers?  Do all work miracles?  ³⁰Do all possess gifts of healing?  Do all speak in tongues?  Do all interpret?  ³¹But strive for the greater gifts.  And I will show you a still more excellent way.

 For the Holiness School, all Israel is holy, including the very land of Israel and the fruit it produces.  It should not surprise us, therefore, to find teachings concerning the holiness of the land of Israel in the Holiness Code.  When speaking of the land of Israel, we must recognize that we are speaking of sacred space.  Just as Abraham was chosen by God to serve a holy purpose, so too was the land promised to Abraham chosen by God for a holy purpose.

 (Genesis 12:1-3 NRS) Now YHWH said to Abram, Go from your country and your kindred and your father’s house to the land that I will show you.  ²I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing.  ³I will bless those who bless you, and the one who curses you I will curse; and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed.

 It is evident from the calling of Abraham that YHWH had already elected or chosen a particular land.  This chosen land is defined for us in the covenant YHWH made with Abraham and his descendants.

 (Genesis 15:18-21 NRS) On that day YHWH made a covenant with Abram, saying, To your descendants I give this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates, ¹⁹the land of the Kenites, the Kenizzites, the Kadmonites, ²⁰the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Rephaim, ²¹the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Girgashites, and the Jebusites.

 We should recall that according to the H source material, the previous inhabitants were to be expelled from YHWH’S  holy land because they had defiled it.

 (Leviticus 18:24-28 NRS) Do not defile yourselves in any of these ways, for by all these practices the nations I am casting out before you have defiled themselves.  ²⁵Thus the land became defiled; and I punished it for its iniquity, and the land vomited out its inhabitants.  ²⁶But you shall keep My statutes and My ordinances and commit none of these abominations, either the citizen or the alien who resides among you ²⁷(for the inhabitants of the land, who were before you, committed all of these abominations, and the land became defiled); ²⁸otherwise the land will vomit you out for defiling it, as it vomited out the nation that was before you.

 Israel is sanctified (i.e., set apart) by the commandments of YHWH.  By keeping the appointed holy rehearsals and Feasts of YHWH as given in the liturgical calendar contained in Leviticus 23, the people of Israel are set apart from the nations around them.  The daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly patterns of Israel’s cultic practices establish a unique rhythm of life that distinguishesIsraelas a holy people and sanctifies time.  This same sanctifying pattern is also extended to the land of Israel.

 (Leviticus 25:1-7 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses on Mount Sinai, saying: ²Speak to the people of Israel and say to them: When you enter the land that I am giving you, the land shall observe a Sabbath for YHWH.  ³Six years you shall sow your field, and six years you shall prune your vineyard, and gather in their yield; ⁴but in the seventh year there shall be a Sabbath of complete rest for the land, a Sabbath for YHWH: you shall not sow your field or prune your vineyard.  ⁵You shall not reap the aftergrowth of your harvest or gather the grapes of your unpruned vine: it shall be a year of complete rest for the land.  ⁶You may eat what the land yields during its Sabbath – you, your male and female slaves, your hired and your bound laborers who live with you; ⁷for your livestock also, and for the wild animals in your land all its yield shall be for food.

 The land of Israel is to enjoy a time of rest and refreshment every seven years.  During this time of rest, the land is to remain fallow.  The Israelites are not to plow, plant, prune, or harvest the land.  Whatever food does grow on the land is to be made available for the benefit of all, including the owners, their servants, their neighbors, the widow, the orphan, the stranger, the needy, the livestock, and the wild animals.

 The people of Israel, their sons and their daughters, their servants, and their livestock are to enjoy a day of complete rest on the seventh day of every week.

 (Exodus 20:8-11 NRS) Remember the Sabbath day, and keep it holy.  ⁹Six days you shall labor and do all your work.  ¹⁰But the seventh day is a Sabbath to YHWH your God; you shall not do any work – you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns.  ¹¹For in six days YHWH made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore YHWH blessed the Sabbath day and consecrated it.

 The Sabbath not only sanctifies time by its unique pattern and rhythm; it also strengthens our faith in YHWH.  While poverty and deprivation may have been the great test of faith for our ancestors in the wilderness, it will be prosperity and abundance in the land flowing with milk and honey that will prove to be the greater test once our ancestors reside in the land.  Moses warned Israel not to forget that it is YHWH who is responsible for all such blessings.

 (Deuteronomy 8:17-18 NRS) Do not say to yourself, My power and the might of my own hand have gotten me this wealth.  ¹⁸But remember YHWH your God, for it is He who gives you power to get wealth, so that He may confirm His covenant that He swore to your ancestors, as He is doing today.

 The gift of the weekly Sabbath liberates us from the bondage of materialism and self-reliance.  Every week when we cease laboring, we realize that the world continues to turn, the sun continues to shine, and the planets continue in their orbit without our help or industry.  It is interesting to note that in Deuteronomy, the keeping of the weekly Sabbath is specifically associated with our liberation from bondage.

(Deuteronomy 5:12-15 NRS) Observe the Sabbath day and keep it holy, as YHWH your God commanded you.  ¹³Six days you shall labor and do all your work.  ¹⁴But the seventh day is a Sabbath to YHWH your God; you shall not do any work – you, or your son or your daughter, or your male or female slave, or your ox or your donkey, or any of your livestock, or the resident alien in your towns, so that your male and female slave may rest as well as you.  ¹⁵Remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and YHWH your God brought you out from there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore YHWH your God commanded you to keep the Sabbath day.

The weekly Sabbath reminds us that YHWH rules the universe.  The seventh-year land Sabbath likewise reminds us that our daily bread is a gift from YHWH.  While we may plant the seed, it is YHWH who causes it to grow.  The farmer is truly at the mercy of the Sovereign of the universe, who controls the sun, the rain, the wind, and the earth.  While the farmer may indeed labor to his best advantage, his labor is in vain if it is not blessed by YHWH.

 (Psalm 127:1 NRS) Unless YHWH builds the house, those who build it labor in vain.  Unless YHWH guards the city, the guard keeps watch in vain.

 The evidence of YHWH’S presence and power in the fruit of the earth is seen in the fact that when the soil should be depleted of all its nutrients and, therefore, be less productive, the land of Israel will bring forth a triple harvest in the final (sixth) year of planting.

 (Leviticus 25:20-21 NRS) Should you ask, What shall we eat in the seventh year, if we may not sow or gather in our crop?  ²¹I will order My blessing for you in the sixth year, so that it will yield a crop for three years.

 Further liberating the children of Israel from materialism and self-reliance, as well as further stretching our faith in YHWH as the true provider of our daily bread, is the command to keep the year of Jubilee.

 (Leviticus 25:8-13 NRS) You shall count off seven weeks of years, seven times seven years, so that the period of seven weeks of years gives forty-nine years.  ⁹Then you shall have the trumpet sounded loud; on the tenth day of the seventh month – on the day of atonement – you shall have the trumpet sounded throughout all your land.  ¹⁰And you shall hallow the fiftieth year and you shall proclaim liberty throughout the land to all its inhabitants.  It shall be a jubilee for you: you shall return, every one of you, to your property and every one of you to your family.  ¹¹That fiftieth year shall be a jubilee for you: you shall not sow, or reap the aftergrowth, or harvest the unpruned vines.  ¹²For it is a jubilee; it shall be holy to you: you shall eat only what the field itself produces.  ¹³In this year of jubilee you shall return, every one of you, to your property.

 In the year of Jubilee the land remains fallow for two years and all property is returned to its rightful owner.  When land deals are made between the brethren, it is not the land that is being sold but the right to harvest the land.  The land cannot be sold, for it belongs to YHWH.  The children ofIsraelreside in the land only as long as they do not defile it.

 (Leviticus 25:13-16 NRS) In this year of jubilee you shall return, every one of you, to your property.  ¹⁴When you make a sale to your neighbor or buy from your neighbor, you shall not cheat one another.  ¹⁵When you buy from your neighbor, you shall pay only for the number of years since the jubilee; the seller shall charge you only for the remaining crop years.  ¹⁶If the years are more, you shall increase the price, and if the years are fewer, you shall diminish the price; for it is a certain number of harvests that are being sold to you.

 (Leviticus 25:18-19 NRS) You shall observe My statutes and faithfully keep My ordinances, so that you may live on the land securely.  ¹⁹The land will yield its fruit, and you will eat your fill and live on it securely.

 (Leviticus 25:23 NRS) The land shall not be sold in perpetuity, for the land is Mine; with Me you are but aliens and tenants.

Since the land belongs exclusively to YHWH, we do not have the right to sell or give away the land to foreigners or strangers outside the covenant.  If one of the brethren should fall into hardship and sell his land to someone outside the covenant, the rest of Israel must be ready to redeem the land from the stranger and restore it to Israel.  The land of Israel is sacred land and must be protected.  The same may be said of the people of Israel.  Both the land and the people ofIsraelare holy unto YHWH and, therefore, must be redeemed.

 (Leviticus 25:25-28 NRS) If anyone of your kin falls into difficulty and sells a piece of property, then the next of kin shall come and redeem what the relative has sold.  ²⁶If the person has no one to redeem it, but then prospers and finds sufficient means to do so, ²⁷the years since its sale shall be computed and the difference shall be refunded to the person to whom it was sold, and the property shall be returned.  ²⁸But if there is not sufficient means to recover it, what was sold shall remain with the purchaser until the year of jubilee; in the jubilee it shall be released, and the property shall be returned.

 We should note that dwellings within walled cities are exempt from the requirements of the Jubilee year.

 (Leviticus 25:29-31 NRS) If anyone sells a dwelling house in a walled city, it may be redeemed until a year has elapsed since its sale; the right of redemption shall be one year.  ³⁰If it is not redeemed before a full year has elapsed, a house that is in a walled city shall pass in perpetuity to the purchaser, throughout the generations; it shall not be released in the jubilee.  ³¹But houses in villages that have no walls around them shall be classed as open country; they may be redeemed, and they shall be released in the jubilee.

 The property of the Levites also follows a different pattern because the Levites have no territorial tribal inheritance in the land.  The Levites are given cities and property around their cities throughout the land of Israel.  Since the Levites control the cities of refuge, these properties by necessity must remain under the control of the Levites.

 (Numbers 35:6-7 NRS) The towns that you give to the Levites shall include the six cities of refuge, where you shall permit a slayer to flee, and in addition to them you shall give forty-two towns.  ⁷The towns that you give to the Levites shall total forty-eight, with their pasture lands.

 (Leviticus 25:32-34 NRS) As for the cities of the Levites, the Levites shall forever have the right of redemption of the houses in the cities belonging to them.  ³³Such property as may be redeemed from the Levites – houses sold in a city belonging to them – shall be released in the jubilee; because the houses in the cities of the Levites are their possession among the people of Israel.  ³⁴But the open land around their cities may not be sold; for that is their possession for all time.

 Just as the land belongs to YHWH, so too do the people.  The people ofIsraelwere redeemed from bondage in Egypt.  YHWH paid a price for the people ofIsrael.

 (Jeremiah 31:11 NRS) For YHWH has ransomed Jacob, and has redeemed him from hands too strong for him.

(Isaiah 43:3 NRS) For I am YHWH your God, the Holy One of Israel, your Savior.  I give Egypt as your ransom, Ethiopia and Seba in exchange for you.

Just as we are commanded to redeem the land of Israel from the hands of strangers, so too are we to redeem any of our brethren who by hard circumstance become the possession of a stranger.

 (Leviticus 25:47-55 NRS) If resident aliens among you prosper, and if any of your kin fall into difficulty with one of them and sell themselves to an alien, or to a branch of the alien’s family, ⁴⁸after they have sold themselves they shall have the right of redemption; one of their brothers may redeem them, ⁴⁹or their uncle or their uncle’s son may redeem them, or anyone of their family who is of their own flesh may redeem them; or if they prosper they may redeem themselves.  ⁵⁰They shall compute with the purchaser the total from the year when they sold themselves to the alien until the jubilee year; the price of the sale shall be applied to the number of years: the time they were with the owner shall be rated as the time of a hired laborer.  ⁵¹If many years remain, they shall pay for their redemption in proportion to the purchase price; ⁵²and if few years remain until the jubilee year, they shall compute thus: according to the years involved they shall make payment for their redemption.  ⁵³As a laborer hired by the year they shall be under the alien’s authority, who shall not, however, rule with harshness over them in your sight.  ⁵⁴And if they have not been redeemed in any of these ways, they and their children with them shall go free in the jubilee year.  ⁵⁵For to Me the people of Israel are servants; they are My servants whom I brought out from the land of Egypt: I am YHWH your God.

 Let us take care to note that even the prosperous stranger living in the land of Israel is bound by the laws of the Jubilee year.  However, if our brother sells himself into bondage outside the land, these laws do not protect him.  This teaching of redemption is a difficult one to fulfill.  This is especially so since so many of the people of Israel are living in bondage to unbelievers through various loans, mortgages, credit cards, etc.

 (Proverbs 22:7 NRS) The rich rule over the poor, and the borrower is the slave of the lender.

 If we were genuinely living the Torah as a people, we would have financial systems in place within the body of Israel to help one another.  Today, the collective debt of those who identify themselves asIsraelis staggering, and the bondage to strangers is great.

 The Torah teaches that we are to be a help to one another when in need.  However, we must always recognize that as members of the redeemed people of YHWH, we have no right to enslave those whom YHWH has already redeemed.  The people of Israel have been redeemed by YHWH.  The people of Israel belong to YHWH.  The people of Israel are to be holy unto YHWH.  Therefore, when our brother or sister in need comes to us for help, we must be ready and willing to help.  We may “hire” our brethren but not “enslave” them.

 (Leviticus 25:35-43 NRS) If any of your kin fall into difficulty and become dependent on you, you shall support them; they shall live with you as though resident aliens.  ³⁶Do not take interest in advance or otherwise make a profit from them, but fear your God; let them live with you.  ³⁷You shall not lend them your money at interest taken in advance, or provide them food at a profit.  ³⁸I am YHWH your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, to give you the land of Canaan, to be your God.  ³⁹If any who are dependent on you become so impoverished that they sell themselves to you, you shall not make them serve as slaves.  ⁴⁰They shall remain with you as hired or bound laborers.  They shall serve with you until the year of the jubilee.  ⁴¹Then they and their children with them shall be free from your authority; they shall go back to their own family and return to their ancestral property.  ⁴²For they are My servants, whom I brought out of the land of Egypt; they shall not be sold as slaves are sold.  ⁴³You shall not rule over them with harshness, but shall fear your God.

 We should note the justice of this system.  The person in poverty is not given unconditional charity.  The person being redeemed must work for the redeemer in order to pay back the redemption price.  Such a system prevents our brother from falling into repeated patterns of risky living that continually tax the community’s ability to bail him out.  By holding the redeemed brother responsible for his redemption, the pattern of irresponsibility is broken and the kinsman redeemer is compensated for his faithfulness.  Such a system protects the dignity of the redeemed and the ability of the redeemer to help again in the future.

 It is clear from these teachings that the relationship between the redeemer and the redeemed is to be one of brotherly love.  If we think of Israel as a body, we do not want any member of the body to be in poverty or bondage. Israel is strongly identified with YHWH.  What happens to Israel is a reflection upon YHWH.  If Israel is poor and in bondage, it gives the impression that YHWH is unable to provide.  Therefore, for the sake of the name and reputation of YHWH, we must act to redeem and deliver one another from anything that would cause the desecration of the name of  YHWH.  By failing to redeem and aid our needy brothers and sisters, we, as the image of YHWH, present a false image to the world.  Such false images are expressly forbidden among us.

 (Leviticus 26:1-2 NRS) You shall make for yourselves no idols and erect no carved images or pillars, and you shall not place figured stones in your land, to worship at them; for I am YHWH your God.  ²You shall keep My Sabbaths and reverence My sanctuary: I am YHWH.

 The Holiness Code concludes with a series of blessings and curses that may be expected for fulfilling or violating the covenant.  We should note that the blessings for obedience precede the giving of the curses.  We should also note that the blessings are given in eleven verses (Leviticus 26:3-13), while the curses are given in twenty-six verses (Leviticus 26:14-39).  While this may, at first, give the impression that YHWH is far more severe in punishment than He is generous in blessing, this is not the case.  All of the blessings for obedience are given abundantly and at once.  Note that in the Hebrew text, the verses concerning blessing begin with the letter aleph (the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet – ’im b^echuqotai…) and conclude with the letter tav (the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet – …’etkhem qomemiyut).  The sages have often explained this as teaching that YHWH is willing to give us every blessing from aleph to tav or, as we would say in English, from A to Z.  Obedient Israel enjoys all the blessings of YHWH without restraint.  The curses upon disobedience, however, are measured out in progressive increments.

 (Leviticus 26:14-16 NRS) But if you will not obey Me, and do not observe all these commandments, ¹⁵if you spurn My statutes, and abhor My ordinances, so that you will not observe all My commandments, and you break My covenant, ¹⁶I in turn will do this to you: I will bring terror on you; consumption and fever that waste the eyes and cause life to pine away.  You shall sow your seed in vain, for your enemies shall eat it.

 (Leviticus 26:21 NRS) If you continue hostile to Me, and will not obey Me, I will continue to plague you sevenfold for your sins.

 (Leviticus 26:23-24 NRS) If in spite of these punishments you have not turned back to Me, but continue hostile to Me, ²⁴then I too will continue hostile to you: I Myself will strike you sevenfold for your sins.

 (Leviticus 26:27-28 NRS) But if, despite this, you disobey Me, and continue hostile to Me, ²⁸I will continue hostile to you in fury; I in turn will punish you Myself sevenfold for your sins.

 The progressive nature of the curses reveals that they are meant as loving chastisements meted out in the hope of returning Israel to the Torah and the way of life.  The willingness of YHWH to remain in relationship with His chosen people is made emphatically clear in the verses following the curses.

 (Leviticus 26:40-42 NRS) But if they confess their iniquity and the iniquity of their ancestors, in that they committed treachery against Me and, moreover, that they continued hostile to Me – ⁴¹so that I, in turn, continued hostile to them and brought them into the land of their enemies; if then their uncircumcised heart is humbled and they make amends for their iniquity, ⁴²then will I remember My covenant with Jacob; I will remember also My covenant with Isaac and also My covenant with Abraham, and I will remember the land.

 YHWH promises that even in exile, He will not spurn His people or utterly destroy them.

 (Leviticus 26:44-45 NRS) Yet for all that, when they are in the land of their enemies, I will not spurn them, or abhor them so as to destroy them utterly and break My covenant with them; for I am YHWH their God; ⁴⁵but I will remember in their favor the covenant with their ancestors whom I brought out of the land of Egypt in the sight of the nations, to be their God: I am YHWH.

 The book of Vayiqra or Leviticus concludes with instructions concerning vows and dedications.  While this may seem like a strange conclusion for the book, it is meant to call us as a people to remember the vow that our ancestors made at Mount Sinaiwhen they entered into covenant with YHWH and agreed to be His holy people.

 (Exodus 19:4-8 NRS) You have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to Myself.  ⁵Now therefore, if you obey My voice and keep My covenant, you shall be My treasured possession out of all the peoples.  Indeed, the whole earth is Mine, ⁶but you shall be for Me a priestly kingdom and a holy nation.  These are the words that you shall speak to the Israelites.  ⁷So Moses came, summoned the elders of the people, and set before them all these words that YHWH had commanded him.  ⁸The people all answered as one: Everything that YHWH has spoken we will do.  Moses reported the words of the people to YHWH.

 (Exodus 24:3-8 NRS) Moses came and told the people all the words of YHWH and all the ordinances; and all the people answered with one voice, and said, All the words that YHWH has spoken we will do.  ⁴And Moses wrote down all the words of YHWH.  He rose early in the morning, and built an altar at the foot of the mountain, and set up twelve pillars, corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel.  ⁵He sent young men of the people of Israel, who offered burnt offerings and sacrificed oxen as offerings of well-being to YHWH.  ⁶Moses took half of the blood and put it in basins, and half of the blood he dashed against the altar.  ⁷Then he took the book of the covenant, and read it in the hearing of the people; and they said, All that YHWH has spoken we will do, and we will be obedient.  ⁸Moses took the blood and dashed it on the people, and said, See the blood of the covenant that YHWH has made with you in accordance with all these words.

 Because we violated our vow, many of us find ourselves reading these words outside the land of Israel.  The prescribed course is made clear to us in the Torah.  If we humble ourselves, repent of our wrongdoing, and learn to embrace our calling to be a holy people, we shall be returned to our land and enjoy the blessings of YHWH as He intended for us to experience.

 (2 Chronicles 7:14 NRS) if my people who are called by my name humble themselves, pray, seek my face, and turn from their wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin and heal their land. 

OUTLINE:

•  Leviticus 21:1-9                       Instructions concerning the sanctification of priests
• Leviticus 21:10-15                   Instructions concerning the sanctification of the High Priest
• Leviticus 21:16-24                   Instructions concerning the wholeness of priests serving at                                                  the Altar
• Leviticus 22:1-16                     Instructions concerning the sanctity of the devoted things
• Leviticus 22:17-30                   Instructions concerning the wholeness of animals for                                                           sacrifice
• Leviticus 22:31-33                   Prohibition against profaning the name of YHWH 
• Leviticus 23:1-38                     The liturgical calendar of Israel
• Leviticus 23:39-44                   Additional instructions for Sukkot 
• Leviticus 24:1-9                       Instructions for daily and weekly service of the Tabernacle
• Leviticus 24:10-23                   Instructions concerning blasphemy 

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1.  By what name did the patriarchs know the Creator?
2. By what name did the exodus generation know their Redeemer and Deliverer?
3. What is a theophoric name?
4. What name was the first to include the prefix Yah-?
5. What is the principle of association?
6. What isIsrael’s calling?
7. What are the key verses in this portion?
8. What is the common theme?
9. Why is the story of the blasphemer appended to these instructions?
10. What is the primary responsibility of the people ofIsrael?

TEACHING:

 According to biblical tradition, the patriarchs and our ancestors predominantly called their deity El, Elohim, El Elyon, and El Shaddai.

 (Genesis 14:22 NRS) But Abram said to the king of Sodom, I have sworn to YHWH, El Elyon, maker of heaven and earth…

 (Numbers 24:16 NRS) The oracle of one who hears the words of God, and knows the knowledge of Elyon, who sees the vision of Shaddai, who falls down, but with his eyes uncovered…

 (Deuteronomy 32:8 NRS) When Elyon apportioned the nations, when He divided humankind, He fixed the boundaries of the peoples according to the number of the gods…

 (Genesis 17:1 NRS) When Abram was ninety-nine years old, YHWH appeared to Abram, and said to him, I am El Shaddai; walk before Me, and be blameless.

 (Genesis 28:3 NRS) May El Shaddai bless you and make you fruitful and numerous, that you may become a company of peoples.

 (Genesis 43:14 NRS) May El Shaddai grant you mercy before the man, so that he may send back your other brother and Benjamin.  As for me, if I am bereaved of my children, I am bereaved.

 (Genesis 48:3 NRS) And Jacob said to Joseph, El Shaddai appeared to me at Luz in the land of Canaan, and He blessed me.

 (Exodus 6:3 NRS) I appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as El Shaddai, but by My name YHWH I did not make Myself known to them.

 That Israel’s ancestors called their deity “El” is supported in the early use of theophoric names containing the prefix El- or the suffix -el.

 (Genesis 5:13 NRS) Kenan lived after the birth of Mahalalel (Praise of El) eight hundred and forty years, and had other sons and daughters.

 (Genesis 12:8 NRS) From there he moved on to the hill country on the east of Bethel (House of El), and pitched his tent, with Bethel on the west and Ai on the east; and there he built an altar to YHWH and invoked the name of YHWH.

 (Genesis 16:15 NRS) Hagar bore Abram a son; and Abram named his son, whom Hagar bore, Ishmael (El will hear).

 (Genesis 32:28 NRS) Then the man said, You shall no longer be called Jacob, but Israel (Prince of El), for you have striven with God and with humans, and have prevailed.

 (Genesis 32:30 NRS) So Jacob called the place Peniel (Facing El), saying, For I have seen God face to face, and yet my life is preserved.

 (Genesis 35:7 NRS) And there he built an altar and called the place El-bethel (El of the House of El), because it was there that God had revealed Himself to him when he fled from his brother.

 (Genesis 10:4 NRS) The descendants of Javan: Elishah (El of the coming one), Tarshish, Kittim, and Rodanim.

 (Genesis 15:2 NRS) But Abram said, O Lord YHWH, what will You give me, for I continue childless, and the heir of my house is Eliezer (El is help) of Damascus?

 (Exodus 6:23 NRS) Aaron married Elisheba (El has sworn), daughter of Amminadab and sister of Nahshon, and she bore him Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar (El has helped), and Ithamar.

 We may understand El to be the God of our Hebrew ancestors, who eventually became the redeemed people Israel.  At the burning bush Moses asked for and received the name by which the Redeemer would be known among His people.

(Exodus 3:13-15 NRS) But Moses said to God, If I come to the Israelites and say to them, The God of your ancestors has sent me to you, and they ask me, What is His name? what shall I say to them?  ¹⁴God said to Moses, I AM WHO I AM (’ehyeh asher ’ehyeh).  He said further, Thus you shall say to the Israelites, I AM (’ehyeh) has sent me to you.  ¹⁵God also said to Moses, Thus you shall say to the Israelites, YHWH, the God of your ancestors, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you: This is My name forever, and this My title for all generations.

Nahum M. Sarna reminds us that this name was not completely foreign to our ancestors.

God’s response to Moses’ query cannot be the disclosure of a hitherto unknown name, for that would be unintelligible to the people and would not resolve Moses’ dilemma.  However, taken together with the statement in 6:3, the implication is that the name YHVH only came into prominence as the characteristic personal name of the God of Israel in the time of Moses.  This tradition accords with the facts that the various divine names found in Genesis are no longer used, except occasionally in poetic texts; that of all the personal names listed hitherto, none is constructed of the prefixed yeho-/yo- or the suffixed -yahu/-yah contractions of YHVH; that the first name of this type is yokheved (Jochebed), that of Moses’ mother.  Ibn Ezra points out that Moses, in his direct speech, invariably uses the name YHVH, not ‘elohim, “God.”  Without doubt, the revelation of the divine name YHVH to Moses registers a new stage in the history of Israelite monotheism.[2]

While the J source story of creation clearly utilizes the name YHWH, we should understand that the J story of creation was not written until well after the exodus, when the name YHWH was already in use by the people of Israel.  It is also apparent that a later redactor included the name Elohim in the title of the deity (YHWH Elohim) to assure that people understood that the El of our ancestors was the same deity as YHWH, who is worshipped presently among the people ofIsrael.  Sarna writes:

This combination of the personal divine name YHVH with the general term ’elohim appears twenty times in this present literary unity (Genesis 2:4-3:24), but only once again in the Torah, in Exodus 9:30.  It is exceedingly rare in the rest of the Bible.  The repeated use here may be to establish that the absolutely transcendent God of Creation (’elohim) is the same immanent, personal God (YHVH) who shows concern for the needs of human beings.  Admittedly, however, the remarkable concentration of the combination of these divine names in this narrative and their virtual absence hereafter have not been satisfactorily explained.[3]

 What is made very clear by the biblical testimony is the fact that YHWH is the name by whichIsraelwas delivered out of the land of bondage.  The Hebrew people called upon the names El, El Elyon, and El Shaddai prior to leaving the land of Canaan to head to Egypt, but the children of Israel called upon YHWH when they came out of Egypt.  It is YHWH who is credited with bringing our ancestors out of bondage, through the wilderness, and into the promised land.

 (Exodus 6:6 NRS) Say therefore to the Israelites, I am YHWH, and I will free you from the burdens of the Egyptians and deliver you from slavery to them.  I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and with mighty acts of judgment.

(Exodus 13:3 NRS) Moses said to the people, Remember this day on which you came out of Egypt, out of the house of slavery, because YHWH brought you out from there by strength of hand; no leavened bread shall be eaten.

(Exodus 13:14 NRS) When in the future your child asks you, What does this mean? you shall answer, By strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery.

(Exodus 20:2 NRS) I am YHWH your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.

(Leviticus 22:33 NRS) I who brought you out of the land of Egypt to be your God: I am YHWH.

(Deuteronomy 5:6 NRS) I am YHWH your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.

(Deuteronomy 6:12 NRS) Take care that you do not forget YHWH, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.

(Deuteronomy 8:14 NRS) Then do not exalt yourself, forgetting YHWH your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.

(Deuteronomy 13:5 NRS) But those prophets or those who divine by dreams shall be put to death for having spoken treason against YHWH your God – who brought you out of the land of Egypt and redeemed you from the house of slavery – to turn you from the way in which YHWH your God commanded you to walk.  So you shall purge the evil from your midst.

(Deuteronomy 13:10 NRS) Stone them to death for trying to turn you away from YHWH your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.

It is at the time of Moses that we begin to see a shift in the theophoric names from El to Yah.  Clearly, the inclusion of the name of Yah in personal names after the time of Moses is evidence of this shift.

 (1 Kings 18:4 NRS) when Jezebel was killing off the prophets of YHWH, Obadiah (Sevant of Yah) took a hundred prophets, hid them fifty to a cave, and provided them with bread and water.

 (1 Kings 22:9 NRS) Then the king of Israel summoned an officer and said, Bring quickly Micaiah (Who is like Yah) son of Imlah.

 (1 Kings 22:51 NRS) Ahaziah (Held by Yah) son of Ahab began to reign over Israel in Samaria in the seventeenth year of King Jehoshaphat of Judah; he reigned two years over Israel.

 (2 Kings 11:3 NRS) He remained with her six years, hidden in the house of YHWH, while Athaliah (Afflicted of Yah) reigned over the land.

 (2 Kings 14:8 NRS) Then Amaziah (Stong is Yah) sent messengers to King Jehoash son of Jehoahaz, son of Jehu, of Israel, saying, Come, let us look one another in the face.

 (2 Kings 20:16 NRS) Then Isaiah (Yah has saved) said to Hezekiah (My strength is Yah), Hear the word of YHWH.

 (2 Kings 22:1 NRS) Josiah (Whom Yah heals) was eight years old when he began to reign; he reigned thirty-one years in Jerusalem.  His mother’s name was Jedidah daughter of Adaiah (Yah has adorned) of Bozkath.

 (2 Kings 22:4 NRS) Go up to the high priest Hilkiah (My portion is Yah), and have him count the entire sum of the money that has been brought into the house of YHWH, which the keepers of the threshold have collected from the people.

 (Exodus 6:20 NRS) Amram married Jochebed (Yah is glory) his father’s sister and she bore him Aaron and Moses, and the length of Amram’s life was one hundred thirty-seven years.

 (Numbers 13:16 NRS) These were the names of the men whom Moses sent to spy out the land.  And Moses changed the name of Hoshea son of Nun to Joshua (Yah saves).

 Aaron is commanded by YHWH to bless the people of Israel and to put His name YHWH on them.

 (Numbers 6:27 NRS) So they shall put My name on the Israelites, and I will bless them.

 Martin Rose writes:

 In Israel of the biblical tradition only one name of God was cultically appealed to: YHWH (Heb. yhwh).  When one speaks of Yahweh one also speaks of Israel.  The oldest texts of the OT start from this relation between Yahweh and his people Israel, so, e.g., in the Song of Deborah (one of the oldest [poetical] texts), after the mention of the name of Yahweh the epithet “God of Israel” follows unpretentiously (Judg. 5:5; cf. v.3).  In fact “Yahweh, the God of Israel” represents one of the most frequent expressions of the OT times.[4]

 (Exodus 5:1 NRS) Afterward Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and said, Thus says YHWH, the God of Israel, Let My people go, so that they may celebrate a festival to Me in the wilderness.

 (Exodus 32:27 NRS) He said to them, Thus says YHWH, the God of Israel, Put your sword on your side, each of you!  Go back and forth from gate to gate throughout the camp, and each of you kill your brother, your friend, and your neighbor.

 (Joshua 7:19 NRS) Then Joshua said to Achan, My son, give glory to YHWH God of Israel and make confession to Him.  Tell me now what you have done; do not hide it from me.

 From the covenant of Sinai forward, the name YHWH and Israel are inseparable.  This exclusive connection is at the heart of Israel’s confession of faith.

 (Deuteronomy 6:4 NRS) Hear, O Israel: YHWH is our God, YHWH alone.

 Because of the great connection between Israel and the name of YHWH, Moses interceded several times for a stubborn and rebellious Israel, asking for mercy for the people for the sake of YHWH’S name.

 (Numbers 14:13-16 NRS) But Moses said to YHWH, Then the Egyptians will hear of it, for in Your might You brought up this people from among them, ¹⁴and they will tell the inhabitants of this land.  They have heard that You, O YHWH, are in the midst of this people; for You, O YHWH, are seen face to face, and Your cloud stands over them and You go in front of them, in a pillar of cloud by day and in a pillar of fire by night.  ¹⁵Now if You kill this people all at one time, then the nations who have heard about You will say, ¹⁶It is because YHWH was not able to bring this people into the land He swore to give them that He has slaughtered them in the wilderness.

 (Deuteronomy 9:26-29 NRS) I prayed to YHWH and said, Lord YHWH, do not destroy the people who are Your very own possession, whom You redeemed in Your greatness, whom You brought out of Egypt with a mighty hand.  ²⁷Remember Your servants, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; pay no attention to the stubbornness of this people, their wickedness and their sin, ²⁸otherwise the land from which You have brought us might say, Because YHWH was not able to bring them into the land that He promised them, and because He hated them, He has brought them out to let them die in the wilderness.  ²⁹For they are the people of Your very own possession, whom You brought out by Your great power and by Your outstretched arm.

 Many learned from Moses to appeal to YHWH for the sake of His own name.

 (Psalm 79:9 NRS) Help us, O God of our salvation, for the glory of Your name; deliver us, and forgive our sins, for Your name’s sake.

 (Psalm 106:8 NRS) Yet He saved them for His name’s sake, so that He might make known His mighty power.

 (Psalm 109:21 NRS) But You, O YHWH my Lord, act on my behalf for Your name’s sake; because Your steadfast love is good, deliver me.

 (Psalm 143:11 NRS) For Your name’s sake, O YHWH, preserve my life.  In Your righteousness bring me out of trouble.

 God Himself promises to act for the sake of protecting His own name.

 (1 Samuel 12:22 NRS) For YHWH will not cast away His people, for His great name’s sake, because it has pleased YHWH to make you a people for Himself.

 (Isaiah 48:9 NRS) For My name’s sake I defer My anger, for the sake of My praise I restrain it for you, so that I may not cut you off.

 (Isaiah 48:11 NRS) For My own sake, for My own sake, I do it, for why should My name be profaned?  My glory I will not give to another.

 (Ezekiel 36:22 NRS) Therefore say to the house of Israel, Thus says the Lord YHWH: It is not for your sake, O house of Israel, that I am about to act, but for the sake of My holy name, which you have profaned among the nations to which you came.

 Let us be certain to understand that when we speak of the “name” of YHWH, we are referring not only to His name but also to His reputation and image.  At Mount Sinai Israel covenanted with YHWH to be the vessel by which YHWH would restore His name and image in the earth.  By heeding the voice of YHWH, the people of Israel received the sacred instructions for fulfilling this sacred calling.  The commandments, statutes, ordinances, judgments, and distinctions given in the Torah reveal and establish the image, attributes, character, reputation, and name of YHWH.  The key to understanding this week’s portion is found in the following verses:

 (Leviticus 22:31-33 NRS) Thus you shall keep My commandments and observe them: I am YHWH.  ³²You shall not profane My holy name, that I may be sanctified among the people of Israel: I am YHWH; I sanctify you, ³³I who brought you out of the land of Egypt to be your God: I am YHWH.

 Our portion begins with specific instructions about the sanctity of the priesthood.  We should understand these directions in terms of degrees of association with YHWH.  The Tabernacle, theArk, and the Altar are all clearly identified with YHWH.  The High Priest is possibly the most associated with YHWH; therefore, he is held to a higher degree of sanctity than the priesthood, which is held to a higher degree of sanctity than the people of Israel.  The more one is specifically associated with the name of YHWH, the greater the degree of sanctity to which he is held.  Those who are associated with the Altar and the holy things pertaining to YHWH are to be pure and whole.  While the common Israelite may allow himself to become defiled by attending to the dead, the priest is allowed such defilement only when attending to the death of an immediate family member.

 (Leviticus 21:1-4 NRS) YHWH said to Moses: Speak to the priests, the sons of Aaron, and say to them: No one shall defile himself for a dead person among his relatives, ²except for his nearest kin: his mother, his father, his son, his daughter, his brother; ³likewise, for a virgin sister, close to him because she has had no husband, he may defile himself for her.  ⁴But he shall not defile himself as a husband among his people and so profane himself.

 In order not to profane the name of YHWH, the priest is to abstain from overt rituals of grieving such as pulling out one’s hair, slashing oneself, and shaving off one’s beard and hair.

 (Leviticus 21:6 NRS) They shall be holy to their God, and not profane the name of their God; for they offer YHWH’S offerings by fire, the food of their God; therefore they shall be holy.

 Since the priests are more emphatically associated with the name of YHWH, they must refrain from anything that would bring shame upon His name.

 The High Priest is most intimately associated with YHWH and must refrain from any association with death (since death has no part in the image of the living God).

 (Leviticus 21:10-12 NRS) The priest who is exalted above his fellows, on whose head the anointing oil has been poured and who has been consecrated to wear the vestments, shall not dishevel his hair, nor tear his vestments.  ¹¹He shall not go where there is a dead body; he shall not defile himself even for his father or mother.  ¹²He shall not go outside the sanctuary and thus profane the sanctuary of his God; for the consecration of the anointing oil of his God is upon him: I am YHWH.

 The same principle applies to those who serve at the Altar and that which is brought to the Altar.  Since the priests, the Altar, and the offerings are all associated with the name of YHWH, they must be whole and perfect.

 (Leviticus 21:16-17 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ¹Speak to Aaron and say: No one of your offspring throughout their generations who has a blemish may approach to offer the food of his God.

 (Leviticus 21:21 NRS) No descendant of Aaron the priest who has a blemish shall come near to offer YHWH’S offerings by fire; since he has a blemish, he shall not come near to offer the food of his God.

 (Leviticus 22:20 NRS) You shall not offer anything that has a blemish, for it will not be acceptable in your behalf.

 Since the offerings and dedicated things belong to YHWH and are associated with YHWH, great care is to be exercised in protecting them from mundane or profane usage.

 (Leviticus 22:1-3 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ²Direct Aaron and his sons to deal carefully with the sacred donations of the people of Israel, which they dedicate to Me, so that they may not profane My holy name; I am YHWH.  ³Say to them: If anyone among all your offspring throughout your generations comes near the sacred donations, which the people of Israel dedicate to YHWH, while he is in a state of uncleanness, that person shall be cut off from My presence: I am YHWH.

 Since the offerings and dedicated things are associated with the name of YHWH, they are to be treated in a holy manner lest the name of YHWH be desecrated or profaned.  Among the instructions expressing concern for the sanctity of the name of YHWH is the liturgical calendar (Leviticus 23), which teaches us how to worship YHWH and glorify His name.  The liturgical calendar of appointed times is followed by instructions concerning the lighting of the lamps, the bread of presence, and the offering of incense.

 (Leviticus 24:1-9 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ²Command the people of Israel to bring you pure oil of beaten olives for the lamp, that a light may be kept burning regularly.  ³Aaron shall set it up in the tent of meeting, outside the curtain of the covenant, to burn from evening to morning before YHWH regularly; it shall be a statute forever throughout your generations.  ⁴He shall set up the lamps on the lampstand of pure gold before YHWH regularly.  ⁵You shall take choice flour, and bake twelve loaves of it; two-tenths of an ephah shall be in each loaf.  ⁶You shall place them in two rows, six in a row, on the table of pure gold.  ⁷You shall put pure frankincense with each row, to be a token offering for the bread, as an offering by fire to YHWH.  ⁸Every Sabbath day Aaron shall set them in order before YHWH regularly as a commitment of the people of Israel, as a covenant forever.  ⁹They shall be for Aaron and his descendants, who shall eat them in a holy place, for they are most holy portions for him from the offerings by fire to YHWH, a perpetual due.

 These rituals are a part of the daily priestly office of worship in the miqdash or sanctuary of YHWH.  The inclusion of these words is to remind us that we are to glorify, exalt, and worship YHWH, not defile and profane Him.  To glorify, exalt, and proclaim the name of YHWH is the sacred calling of allIsrael, as is made clear by the commandment that the Israelites are to bring the oil for the light.

 Our portion concludes with a rather abrupt shift from instructions, prohibitions, and exhortations to a peculiar and seemingly disruptive narrative about a half-Israelite, half-Egyptian man traveling with the Israelites.  He is involved in an altercation with another Israelite, and he curses the name of YHWH.

 (Leviticus 24:10-12 NRS) A man whose mother was an Israelite and whose father was an Egyptian came out among the people of Israel; and the Israelite woman’s son and a certain Israelite began fighting in the camp.  ¹The Israelite woman’s son blasphemed the Name in a curse.  And they brought him to Moses – now his mother’s name was Shelomith, daughter of Dibri, of the tribe of Dan – ¹²and they put him in custody, until the decision of YHWH should be made clear to them.

 The Hebrew word translated as “blasphemed” is naqav (nun, qof, vet), which means “to curse” or “to pierce.”  The Hebrew word qalal (qof, lammed, lammed), translated above as “curse,” may also mean “to pierce,” “to profane,” or “to take lightly.”  In other words, the guilty man did not sanctify the name of YHWH; rather, he spoke YHWH’S name in a vain, vulgar, profane, or light manner.  The man desecrated and pierced the name and, therefore, the reputation and image of YHWH.  We should recall that such behavior is clearly contrary to the commandments.

 (Exodus 20:7 NRS) You shall not make wrongful use of the name of YHWH your God, for YHWH will not acquit anyone who misuses His name.

 (Deuteronomy 5:11 NRS) You shall not make wrongful use of the name of YHWH your God, for YHWH will not acquit anyone who misuses His name.

 The wrongful or vain usage of YHWH’S name is described by the Hebrew word shav’ (shin, vav, aleph), which means “emptiness,” “vanity,” “falsehood,” or “lightly.”  If we love YHWH, we do not take His name, reputation, or image upon ourselves lightly.  We are to treat the name of YHWH with great reverence, affection, and awe.

 To treat the name of God with such disrespect is to incur the death penalty.

 (Leviticus 24:13-16 NRS) YHWH said to Moses, saying: ¹⁴Take the blasphemer outside the camp; and let all who were within hearing lay their hands on his head, and let the whole congregation stone him.  ¹⁵And speak to the people of Israel, saying: Anyone who curses God shall bear the sin.  ¹⁶One who blasphemes the name of YHWH shall be put to death; the whole congregation shall stone the blasphemer.  Aliens as well as citizens, when they blaspheme the Name, shall be put to death.

 We should note that this teaching is immediately followed by a teaching on murder and justice.

 (Leviticus 24:17-22 NRS) Anyone who kills a human being shall be put to death.  ¹⁸Anyone who kills an animal shall make restitution for it, life for life.  ¹⁹Anyone who maims another shall suffer the same injury in return: ²⁰fracture for fracture, eye for eye, tooth for tooth; the injury inflicted is the injury to be suffered.  ²¹One who kills an animal shall make restitution for it; but one who kills a human being shall be put to death.  ²²You shall have one law for the alien and for the citizen: for I am YHWH your God.

 The connection between the teaching on blaspheming YHWH and murder is not random.  The Torah is teaching us that when we profane or desecrate the name of God, it is equal to murder!  Again, let us remember that a person’s name is the same as their reputation and image.  If we slander someone or desecrate someone’s name, it is equal to killing the true person and replacing him with some false creation.  To blaspheme the name of YHWH is to kill God’s image and reputation.  It also presents a false image of YHWH, which may cause others to turn away and stumble in their faith.

 To protect the name of YHWH andIsrael’s manifestation of the image of YHWH, those who are guilty of desecrating His name are cut off from Israel, taken outside the camp, and stoned to death.

 (Leviticus 24:23 NRS) Moses spoke thus to the people of Israel; and they took the blasphemer outside the camp, and stoned him to death.  The people of Israel did as YHWH had commanded Moses.

 The story of the blasphemer is appended to the previous instructions about protecting the sanctity of the priesthood, the holy things, the holy days, and the proper worship of YHWH to teach us that when we fail to keep the instructions of the Torah, which reveal the image of YHWH, we too are guilty of desecrating, piercing, and profaning the name of YHWH.  If we identify ourselves as the people ofIsrael, then we identify ourselves as the people of YHWH.  If we are associated with YHWH, then we must take all precautions to protect the name of YHWH from being defiled on our account by our words and our behavior.

THE OUTLINE

• Leviticus 16:1-2                      The warning
• Leviticus 16:3-5                      The preparation and gathering of materials
• Leviticus 16:6-10                    The outline of the rituals
• Leviticus 16:11-28                  Detailed descriptions of the ceremonies
  • 16:11-19    The blood-sprinkling rites
  • 16:20-22    The scapegoat
  • 16:23-28    The purging of the participants
• Leviticus 16:29-34                  The calling upon the people

SUGGESTED STUDY QUESTIONS

1. How is this portion connected to those around it?
2. What do tahor and tamei mean?
3. Why does the Torah mention Nadab and Abihu?
4. What prohibition is given in the opening verse?
5. What is the implicit threat?
6. What is the danger?
7. What must Aaron do first?
8. Why does Aaron not wear his usual priestly garments?
9. What is necessary for Aaron to enter the Holy of Holies?
10. What animals are used?
11. What offering is made first?  For whom is it made?
12. What is unique about the two goats?
13. Why does Aaron cast lots upon the two goats?
14. Who or what is Azazel?
15. What happens to the goat upon which the lot falls for YHWH?
16. What happens to the goat upon which the lot falls for Azazel?
17. What is the proclamation of the goats?
18. What is sin?
19. How does sin defile?
20. What is defiled?
21. What sins are being dealt with?
22. What is the meaning of the word “atonement”?
23. What is the meaning of the word kaphar?
24. What “defilement” is being covered?
25. What is the purpose of the blood?
26. Why can no person be present when Aaron performs this ritual?
27. What is being cleansed?
28. Why does the priest lay both hands upon the scapegoat?
29. Is the scapegoat killed?
30. How many times does Aaron wash?
31. Why does Aaron change his clothes?
32. What are the people to do?
33. Are we required to fast and afflict ourselves?
34. Is this the original intent?
35. How often is this to be done?

THE TEXT

Vayikra 16:1-34 And YHWH spake unto Moses after the death of the two sons of Aaron, when they offered before YHWH, and died; ²and YHWH said unto Moses, Speak unto Aaron thy brother, that he come not at all times into the holy place within the veil before the mercy seat, which is upon the ark; that he die not: for I will appear in the cloud upon the mercy seat.  ³Thus shall Aaron come into the holy place: with a young bullock for a sin offering, and a ram for a burnt offering.  ⁴He shall put on the holy linen coat, and he shall have the linen breeches upon his flesh, and shall be girded with a linen girdle, and with the linen mitre shall he be attired: these are holy garments; therefore shall he wash his flesh in water, and so put them on.  ⁵And he shall take of the congregation of the children of Israel two kids of the goats for a sin offering, and one ram for a burnt offering.  ⁶And Aaron shall offer his bullock of the sin offering, which is for himself, and make an atonement for himself, and for his house.  ⁷And he shall take the two goats, and present them before YHWH at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.  ⁸And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats; one lot to YHWH, and the other lot to the scapegoat (azazel).  ⁹And Aaron shall bring the goat upon which YHWH’S lot fell, and offer him for a sin offering.  ¹⁰But the goat, on which the lot fell to be the scapegoat (azazel), shall be presented alive before YHWH, to make a covering with him, and to let him go for a scapegoat (azazel) into the wilderness.  ¹¹And Aaron shall bring the bullock of the sin offering, which is for himself, and shall make a covering for himself, and for his house, and shall kill the bullock of the sin offering which is for himself: ¹²and he shall take a censer full of burning coals of fire from off the altar before YHWH, and his hands full of sweet incense beaten small, and bring it within the veil: ¹³and he shall put the incense upon the fire before YHWH, that the cloud of the incense may cover the mercy seat that is upon the testimony, that he die not: ¹⁴and he shall take of the blood of the bullock, and sprinkle it with his finger upon the mercy seat eastward; and before the mercy seat shall he sprinkle of the blood with his finger seven times.  ¹⁵Then shall he kill the goat of the sin offering, that is for the people, and bring his blood within the veil, and do with that blood as he did with the blood of the bullock, and sprinkle it upon the mercy seat, and before the mercy seat: ¹⁶and he shall make a covering for the holy place, because of the uncleanness of the children of Israel, and because of their transgressions in all their sins: and so shall he do for the tabernacle of the congregation, that remaineth among them in the midst of their uncleanness.  ¹⁷And there shall be no man in the tabernacle of the congregation when he goeth in to make a covering in the holy place, until he come out, and have made a covering for himself, and for his household, and for all the congregation of Israel.  ¹⁸And he shall go out unto the altar that is before YHWH, and make a covering for it; and shall take of the blood of the bullock, and of the blood of the goat, and put it upon the horns of the altar round about.  ¹⁹And he shall sprinkle of the blood upon it with his finger seven times, and cleanse it, and hallow it from the uncleanness of the children of Israel.  ²⁰And when he hath made an end of covering the holy place, and the tabernacle of the congregation, and the altar, he shall bring the live goat: ²¹and Aaron shall lay both his hands upon the head of the live goat, and confess over him all the iniquities of the children of Israel, and all their transgressions in all their sins, putting them upon the head of the goat, and shall send him away by the hand of a fit man into the wilderness: ²²and the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities unto a land not inhabited: and he shall let go the goat in the wilderness.  ²³And Aaron shall come into the tabernacle of the congregation, and shall put off the linen garments, which he put on when he went into the holy place, and shall leave them there: ²⁴and he shall wash his flesh with water in the holy place, and put on his garments, and come forth, and offer his burnt offering, and the burnt offering of the people, and make a covering for himself, and for the people.  ²⁵And the fat of the sin offering shall he burn upon the altar.  ²⁶And he that let go the goat for the scapegoat (azazel) shall wash his clothes, and bathe his flesh in water, and afterward come into the camp.  ²⁷And the bullock for the sin offering, and the goat for the sin offering, whose blood was brought in to make a covering in the holy place, shall one carry forth without the camp; and they shall burn in the fire their skins, and their flesh, and their dung.  ²⁸And he that burneth them shall wash his clothes, and bathe his flesh in water, and afterward he shall come into the camp.  ²⁹And this shall be a statute for ever unto you: that in the seventh month, on the tenth day of the month, ye shall afflict your souls, and do no work at all, whether it be one of your own country, or a stranger that sojourneth among you: ³⁰for on that day shall the priest make a covering for you, to cleanse you, that ye may be clean from all your sins before YHWH.  ³¹It shall be a Sabbath of rest unto you, and ye shall humble your souls, by a statute forever.  ³²And the priest, whom he shall anoint, and whom he shall consecrate to minister in the priest’s office in his father’s stead, shall make a covering, and shall put on the linen clothes, even the holy garments: ³³and he shall make a covering for the holy sanctuary, and he shall make a covering for the tabernacle of the congregation, and for the altar, and he shall make a covering for the priests, and for all the people of the congregation.  ³⁴And this shall be an everlasting statute unto you, to make a covering for the children of Israel for all their sins once a year.  And he did as YHWH commanded Moses. (Leviticus 16:1-34 KJV)

THE TEACHING

For the last several weeks in our study of the Torah we have been learning to distinguish between the two realms or states of tahor and tamei.  Understanding these distinctions and the reasons for a person to move from one realm to the other is extremely important to our ability to fulfill our calling to be the image of YHWH in the world.  Learning these distinctions is also critical to protecting and assuring our continued fellowship with the Sovereign Creator of the universe.  Here we must also remember that we have been called not only to be the manifest presence of YHWH or the image of the Creator in the world but also specifically to be the Sovereign One’s priestly kingdom and a holy nation.

Now therefore, if ye will obey My voice indeed, and keep My covenant, then ye shall be a peculiar treasure unto Me above all people: for all the earth is Mine: ⁶and ye shall be unto Me a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation.  These are the words which thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel. (Exodus 19:5-6 KJV)

There are several very important points we must make at the very beginning of this portion to truly understand what the Torah is teaching us.

WE ARE CALLED TO BE THE IMAGE OF YHWH

First, we are called to be the image of YHWH in the world.  From the beginning man was created to be the image of Elohim.

And Elohim said, Let Us make man in Our image, after Our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.  ²⁷So Elohim created man in His own image, in the image of Elohim created He him; male and female created He them.  ²⁸And Elohim blessed them, and Elohim said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth. (Genesis 1:26-28 KJV)

Adam and Chava were to manifest the image of Elohim in creation by living according to the knowledge revealed to them through communion with the Spirit of the Creator.  Instead, Adam and Chava ate of the forbidden mixed fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil.  Once their eyes were opened and the sensual nature of man was awakened, Adam and Chava began mixing their own knowledge with the revealed knowledge from the Spirit of the Creator.

And the serpent said unto the woman, Ye shall not surely die: ⁵for Elohim doth know that in the day ye eat thereof, then your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as elohim, knowing good and evil.  ⁶And when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave also unto her husband with her; and he did eat.  ⁷And the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together, and made themselves aprons. (Genesis 3:4-7 KJV)

This mixed knowledge was the death of the image of Elohim.  After the fall, Adam and Chava began living more and more by their senses and their own judgments as to what was good and what was evil.  The chosen vessels of YHWH had become their own elohim and now manifested their own likeness and image in the earth.

This is the book of the generations of Adam.  In the day that Elohim created man, in the likeness of Elohim made He him; ²male and female created He them; and blessed them, and called their name Adam, in the day when they were created.  ³And Adam lived an hundred and thirty years, and begat a son in his own likeness, after his image; and called his name Seth. (Genesis 5:1-3 KJV)

The corruption of YHWH’S revelation and image led to great confusion, chaos, pollution, and violence upon the earth.  The world became filled with all manner of false images, false doctrines, and false religions.  These toxic religious systems were responsible for a great deal of the violence in the world.

At Mount Sinai YHWH asked the children ofIsraelto enter into a covenant relationship with Him.  At the heart of this covenant is the calling to live exclusively by the revealed Word of YHWH.

Now therefore, if ye will obey My voice indeed, and keep My covenant, then ye shall be a peculiar treasure unto Me above all people: for all the earth is Mine: ⁶and ye shall be unto Me a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation.  These are the words which thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel. (Exodus 19:5-6 KJV)

And Elohim spake all these words, saying, ²I am YHWH thy Elohim, which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.  ³Thou shalt have no other elohim before Me.  ⁴Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth: ⁵thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I YHWH thy Elohim am a jealous Elohim, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate Me; ⁶and shewing mercy unto thousands of them that love Me, and keep My commandments. (Exodus 20:1-6 KJV)

For I am YHWH your Elohim: ye shall therefore sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be holy; for I am holy: neither shall ye defile yourselves with any manner of creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.  ⁴⁵For I am YHWH that bringeth you up out of the land of Egypt, to be your Elohim: ye shall therefore be holy, for I am holy. (Leviticus 11:44-45 KJV)

The children ofIsrael, fresh from their deliverance from bondage, quickly agreed and entered into the covenant.  Through the prophet Moses, YHWH bestowed upon the children ofIsraelHis self-revelation – the Torah!  Contained within the instructions of the Torah – its judgments, statutes, ordinances, commandments, appointed times, and holy rehearsals – is the revelation of the Creator’s nature, character, attributes, and will.  By living these instructions, the children ofIsraelembody these attributes in a tangible way for the world to see and understand.

WE ARE CALLED TO MAKE DISTINCTIONS

Contained within the Torah is the revelation that the Creator is an Elohim of distinctions.  While Elohim indeed created everything, He made distinctions and divisions in what He made.

And Elohim saw the light, that it was good: and Elohim divided the light from the darkness. (Genesis 1:4 KJV)

And Elohim made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so. (Genesis 1:7 KJV)

And Elohim said, Let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years. (Genesis 1:14 KJV)

But against any of the children of Israel shall not a dog move his tongue, against man or beast: that ye may know how that YHWH doth put a difference between the Egyptians and Israel. (Exodus 11:7 KJV)

And that ye may put difference between holy and unholy, and between unclean and clean. (Leviticus 10:10 KJV)

By these distinctions the Creator of the universe brought order to the chaos.  When Adam and Chava mixed the revealed knowledge of the Creator with their own sensually gained knowledge, they corrupted the image of YHWH.  When looking at Adam or his descendants, it became impossible to determine what belonged to the image of YHWH and what belonged to the invention of man. Israel, therefore, was called to make distinctions.  These distinctions involved every aspect of their lives.

• Their diet: To make a difference between the unclean and the clean, and between the beast that may be eaten and the beast that may not be eaten. (Leviticus 11:47 KJV)

• Their garments: Thou shalt not wear a garment of divers sorts, as of woollen and linen together. (Deuteronomy 22:11 KJV)

• Their sex lives: Also thou shalt not approach unto a woman to uncover her nakedness, as long as she is put apart for her uncleanness. (Leviticus 18:19 KJV)

• Their relationships: An Ammonite or Moabite shall not enter into the congregation of YHWH; even to their tenth generation shall they not enter into the congregation of YHWH for ever. (Deuteronomy 23:3 KJV)

All these distinctions serve to manifest some specific character trait or attribute of the Creator in the world.  The greatest distinction to be made is between the two realms or states known as tahor and tamei.  It is unfortunate that these two terms have been translated as “clean” and “unclean.”  This translation distorts the purpose of these distinctions and leads to all manner of misunderstanding.  If the words tahor and tamei did mean “clean” and “unclean,” then it would be possible to arbitrarily change the standard and, therefore, change the designation of an object from “unclean” to “clean.”  According to the English translators of the Bible, this is exactly what Jesus did with the dietary laws.

And he called the people to him again and said to them, “Hear me, all of you, and understand: there is nothing outside a person that by going into him can defile him, but the things that come out of a person are what defile him.”  And when he had entered the house and left the people, his disciples asked him about the parable.  And he said to them, “Then are you also without understanding?  Do you not see that whatever goes into a person from outside cannot defile him, since it enters not his heart but his stomach, and is expelled? (Thus he declared all foods clean [tahor].) (Mark 7:14-19 ESV)

If, however, the designations tahor and tamei are connected to the image of YHWH, they cannot change, for YHWH does not change.

For I am YHWH, I change not; therefore ye sons of Jacob are not consumed. (Malachi 3:6 KJV)

Every good gift and every perfect gift is from above, and cometh down from the Father of lights, with whom is no variableness, neither shadow of turning. (James 1:17 KJV)

The designations tahor and tamei are best understood in terms of their relationship to the calling to be the image of YHWH.  Tahor is the designation for those things or the state of being that best serves man in being the image of Elohim.  Tahor, therefore, may best be translated as “that which is useful or acceptable for manifesting the image of YHWH.”  A person is in a state of tahor when his spiritual and physical condition and state of being are indeed appropriate for and consistent with the image of YHWH.  Tamei, on the other hand, would best be translated as “that which is unacceptable or useless for manifesting the image of YHWH.”  A person is in a state of tamei when his spiritual or physical condition is in an inappropriate or inconsistent condition for manifesting or being associated with the image of YHWH.  Understanding these designations is at the very heart of keeping the Torah.

WE ARE CALLED TO BE A PRIESTLY PEOPLE

To aid the children ofIsraelin learning these designations, the Sovereign One called Aaron and his sons to become priests to the children ofIsraeland teach them how to make these distinctions.

And that ye may put difference between holy and unholy, and between unclean and clean; ¹¹and that ye may teach the children of Israel all the statutes which YHWH hath spoken unto them by the hand of Moses. (Leviticus 10:10-11 KJV)

This teaching role of the cohanim or priests of Israel is vitally important.  Not only are the cohanim to teach Israel how to make these distinctions but they are likewise to serve as  role models to the children of Israel, who are themselves to serve as a priestly nation to the world around them.  In other words, just as the sons of Aaron are to teach these distinctions to the Israelites, the Israelites are called to teach these distinctions to the world.

Now therefore, if ye will obey My voice indeed, and keep My covenant, then ye shall be a peculiar treasure unto Me above all people: for all the earth is Mine: ⁶and ye shall be unto Me a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation.  These are the words which thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel. (Exodus 19:5-6 KJV)  

Let us be careful not to lose sight of the connection between these distinctions (tahor and tamei) and the image of YHWH.  By keeping the Torah,Israel manifests the image of YHWH in the world.  By teaching these distinctions, the Israelites make clear to the world what belongs to the image of YHWH and what belongs to the invention of man.  By teaching and living these distinctions, the world begins to know YHWH, the one true Elohim of the universe.

THE CALLING IS A CORPORATE CALLING

It is important for us to realize that the unique calling upon the children ofIsraelis a corporate calling.  While each member of the community ofIsraelis responsible for his personal obedience, the witness of the corporate body far outweighs the testimony of the individual.  This is not to say that the individual’s actions have no impact upon the whole.  The children ofIsraelare clearly identified as being the people of YHWH.

And thou shalt say unto Pharaoh, Thus saith YHWH, Israel is My son, even My firstborn. (Exodus 4:22 KJV)

And afterward Moses and Aaron went in, and told Pharaoh, Thus saith YHWH Elohim of Israel, Let My people go, that they may hold a feast unto Me in the wilderness. (Exodus 5:1 KJV)   

And I will take you to Me for a people, and I will be to you an Elohim: and ye shall know that I am YHWH your Elohim, which bringeth you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians. (Exodus 6:7 KJV)

And I will put a division between My people and thy people: to morrow shall this sign be. (Exodus 8:23 KJV)

Then YHWH said unto Moses, Go in unto Pharaoh, and tell him, Thus saith YHWH Elohim of the Hebrews, Let My people go, that they may serve Me. (Exodus 9:1 KJV)

For thou art an holy people unto YHWH thy Elohim: YHWH thy Elohim hath chosen thee to be a special people unto Himself, above all people that are upon the face of the earth. (Deuteronomy 7:6 KJV)

For thou art an holy people unto YHWH thy Elohim, and YHWH hath chosen thee to be a peculiar people unto Himself, above all the nations that are upon the earth. (Deuteronomy 14:2 KJV)

The individual’s behavior will certainly reflect upon the whole community.  We need to recognize, therefore, that if we are identified with Israelor identify ourselves with Israel, then we are part of Israel’s manifestation of the image of YHWH.  How Israelacts reflects directly upon the world’s understanding of who the Sovereign of the universe is.  It is vital, therefore, that the children of Israellearn to distinguish what is tahor and what is tamei – what is holy and what is profane – what belongs to the image of YHWH and what is the invention of man.

THE TABERNACLE AND THE IMAGE OF YHWH

Since the time of the fall, humanity has largely become sensually oriented rather than spiritually discerning.  For this reason the Creator has chosen to speak to fallen man in the language he is most accustomed to – by using visible words.  We must understand that the Tabernacle, the Altar, the priesthood, and the rituals are all part of the visible manifestation and revelation of the image of YHWH.  These tangible objects are visible proclamations every bit as important as the words we say or read.  The Tabernacle and its furnishings serve as an object lesson for the children ofIsrael, as well as for the nations, in understanding the holy nature and character of our Elohim.

DEFILING THE IMAGE OF YHWH

Whenever an individual member ofIsraelorIsraelas a people fails to make these distinctions or transgresses the boundaries of the Torah, they are guilty of sin and have defiled the image of YHWH.

Whosoever committeth sin transgresseth also the Torah: for sin is the transgression of the Torah. (1 John 3:4 KJV)

Since the Torah outlines the revealed boundaries of the image of YHWH, this verse can be read as follows:

Whosever committeth sin transgresseth also the boundaries of the image of YHWH: for sin is the transgression of the boundaries of the image of YHWH. (1 John 3:4)

With this definition we should understand that sin is a desecration of the image of YHWH.  It is possible to desecrate of the image of YHWH in a positive fashion by adding our own understandings and interpretations to the Torah, as is the case with Talmudic Judaism’s takanot and ma’asim.  The image of YHWH is also desecrated by omitting commandments, as is the case with the Christian church’s teaching that the dietary laws and ceremonial laws, such as the distinction between “clean” and “unclean,” have been done away with.  The Torah itself clearly forbids any such tampering with the revelation of YHWH’S image.

Ye shall not add unto the word which I command you, neither shall ye diminish ought from it, that ye may keep the commandments of YHWH your Elohim which I command you. (Deuteronomy 4:2 KJV)

Understanding that sin defiles the image of YHWH by mixing the pure revelation of YHWH with sensual knowledge and human invention is important to understanding the instructions concerning the rituals enacted on Yom Kippurim.  With this foundational information given, let us now turn our attention to the portion at hand.

Our portion begins this week by establishing the context of the instructions about to be given.

And YHWH spake unto Moses after the death of the two sons of Aaron, when they offered before YHWH, and died; ²and YHWH said unto Moses, Speak unto Aaron thy brother, that he come not at all times into the holy place within the veil before the mercy seat, which is upon the ark; that he die not: for I will appear in the cloud upon the mercy seat. (Leviticus 16:1-2 KJV)

We should observe that these instructions are given after the death of Aaron’s two sons, Nadab and Abihu.

And Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer, and put fire therein, and put incense thereon, and offered strange fire before YHWH, which He commanded them not.  ²And there went out fire from YHWH, and devoured them, and they died before YHWH. (Leviticus 10:1-2 KJV)

Using the definitions given above concerning the image of YHWH, the Tabernacle, tahor, tamei, and sin, we understand that Nadab and Abihu transgressed the boundaries of the Torah and twice defiled the Tabernacle and the image of YHWH.

First, we see that Nadab and Abihu, while possibly well-intended, defiled the image of YHWH by adding something to the revelation of YHWH.  In their zeal and excitement, these two brothers and priests brought to the Tabernacle and the Altar that which was not commanded.  By this self-willed addition they changed the image of YHWH.  This transgression committed before the eyes of the whole community ofIsraelhad to be dealt with quickly and severely lest the whole community come to believe that it is acceptable to YHWH to worship Him in whatever manner seems pleasing to the worshipper instead of the worshipped.  Nadab and Abihu defiled the image with their additions to the revelation of YHWH.

Second, we have seen that YHWH is the living Elohim.  Death has no place in YHWH.  We have learned over the last several weeks that anything that looks like or is associated with death renders one tamei.  Thus, we have seen that the carcasses of dead animals, bodily secretions, necrotic tissue, and destructive skin afflictions all render a person unacceptable as the image of YHWH.

And for these ye shall be tamei: whosoever toucheth the carcase of them shall be tamei until the even.  ²⁵And whosoever beareth ought of the carcase of them shall wash his clothes, and be tamei until the even. (Leviticus 11:24-25 KJV)

Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If a woman have conceived seed, and born a man child: then she shall be tamei seven days; according to the days of the separation for her infirmity shall she be tamei. (Leviticus 12:2 KJV)

But if she bear a maid child, then she shall be tamei two weeks, as in her separation: and she shall continue in the blood of her purifying threescore and six days.  ⁶And when the days of her purifying are fulfilled, for a son, or for a daughter, she shall bring a lamb of the first year for a burnt offering, and a young pigeon, or a turtledove, for a sin offering, unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, unto the priest. (Leviticus 12:5-6 KJV)

And the priest shall look upon him the seventh day: and if it be spread much abroad in the skin, then the priest shall pronounce him tamei: it is the plague of tsara’at. (Leviticus 13:27 KJV)

Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When any man hath a running issue out of his flesh, because of his issue he is tamei. (Leviticus 15:2 KJV)   

And if a woman have an issue, and her issue in her flesh be blood, she shall be put apart seven days: and whosoever toucheth her shall be tamei until the even. (Leviticus 15:19 KJV)

And if a woman have an issue of her blood many days out of the time of her separation, or if it run beyond the time of her separation; all the days of the issue of her defilement shall be as the days of her separation: she shall be tamei. (Leviticus 15:25 KJV)   

All the teachings we have received between the deaths of Nadab and Abihu and the current portion explain what defiles the Tabernacle, the people ofIsrael, and, therefore, the image of YHWH.  The deaths of Nadab and Abihu are clearly inconsistent with the image of the living Elohim; therefore, their deaths defiled the Tabernacle, the object lesson for the children ofIsraelon how to be the image of YHWH.

We should also recognize in the opening words of our portion a very clear warning to Aaron and those who would follow him about entering into the presence of YHWH.  The holiness of YHWH is clearly not something to be taken lightly.  After the golden calf incident, we heard YHWH’S warning to the children ofIsraelthat His holy presence would consume an unholy people.

Unto a land flowing with milk and honey: for I will not go up in the midst of thee; for thou art a stiffnecked people: lest I consume thee in the way. (Exodus 33:3 KJV)

For YHWH had said unto Moses, Say unto the children of Israel, Ye are a stiffnecked people: I will come up into the midst of thee in a moment, and consume thee: therefore now put off thy ornaments from thee, that I may know what to do unto thee. (Exodus 33:5 KJV)   

We must understand what is at stake in these matters.  First, let us recall that consuming holiness is not something YHWH evokes upon us; it is His very nature.  His holiness purges every impurity.  He is like a refiner’s fire.

Who shall ascend into the hill of YHWH?  Or who shall stand in His holy place?  ⁴He that hath clean hands, and a pure heart; who hath not lifted up his soul unto vanity, nor sworn deceitfully. (Psalm 24:3-4 KJV)

But who may abide the day of his coming?  And who shall stand when he appeareth?  For he is like a refiner’s fire, and like fullers’ soap. (Malachi 3:2 KJV) 

The unholy cannot abide with the holy.  Wherever the Holy One sees imperfection, impurity, or anything that is not consistent with His holy image, especially within His chosen vessel Israel, He will purge it from and by His holy presence.  Therefore, Aaron and all subsequent Cohanim G’dolim[2] are warned not to presume to come into the presence of the Holy One at all times, nor on their own terms.

And YHWH said unto Moses, Speak unto Aaron thy brother, that he come not at all times into the holy place within the veil before the mercy seat, which is upon the ark; that he die not: for I will appear in the cloud upon the mercy seat. (Leviticus 16:2 KJV)

This loving yet stern warning is then followed by the proper protocol by which Aaron can, once a year, enter into the Holy of Holies and into the presence of the Holy One.

Let us note that the first thing Aaron is to do is bathe his flesh of all physical defilements and pollutants.  He is then to put on pure, white linen garments.

He shall put on the holy linen coat, and he shall have the linen breeches upon his flesh, and shall be girded with a linen girdle, and with the linen mitre shall he be attired: these are holy garments; therefore shall he wash his flesh in water, and so put them on. (Leviticus 16:4 KJV)

The pure, white linen garments are not the usual priestly garments known as the “golden garments.”  The golden garments are clearly identified with the office of the Cohen Gadol.  The ornate nature and recognized sanctity of these garments demands respect and evokes a sense of awe among the children of Israel.  In this service, however, only Aaron enters into the Tabernacle.  Before YHWH’S imminent presence the ornate golden garments are neither necessary nor appropriate.  The linen garments speak of humility and purity.  Since these vestments are indeed reminiscent of the cohanim’s vestments, we may also understand these garments to be more closely related to the people.  Therefore, Aaron does not enter the Holy of Holies only for himself; he enters for his household and his extended family (all ofIsrael) as well.

Once Aaron bathes and puts on the pure linen garments, he gathers the various animals necessary for the service.  The first of these animals are a bullock for a sin offering and a ram for a burnt offering.  These animals are to be used for himself and his household.  Aaron also receives two goats from the children ofIsraelfor a very unique sin offering.

Thus shall Aaron come into the holy place: with a young bullock for a sin offering, and a ram for a burnt offering. (Leviticus 16:3 KJV)

And he shall take of the congregation of the children of Israel two kids of the goats for a sin offering, and one ram for a burnt offering. (Leviticus 16:5 KJV)

Next, Aaron presents these animals before YHWH.  We should understand that the two goats are to be identical in appearance.  Tradition tells us that a red cord is tied onto the goat to be sacrificed in order to distinguish it from the goat that is to be released.  The choice of goats for each function is understood to be made by YHWH through the casting of lots.  The use of identical goats in this ritual is to cause the people to see them as one goat, much like the two birds used in the ritual cleansing of the metsora (leper).  The first bird is slain, while the second identical bird is set free in the open field.

And the priest shall command that one of the birds be killed in an earthen vessel over running water: ⁶as for the living bird, he shall take it, and the cedar wood, and the scarlet, and the hyssop, and shall dip them and the living bird in the blood of the bird that was killed over the running water: ⁷and he shall sprinkle upon him that is to be cleansed from the leprosy seven times, and shall pronounce him clean, and shall let the living bird loose into the open field. (Leviticus 14:5-7 KJV)

Just as the two birds declared Yeshua, through his death and resurrection, to be the provision of YHWH for our restoration to fellowship with Him, so now the two goats proclaim Yeshua, through his death and resurrection, to be the means through which we may draw unto the presence of YHWH without fear of His holiness.  It should not surprise us, therefore, to see the casting of lots connected with both the goats and the Messiah.

And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats; one lot for YHWH, and the other lot for the scapegoat. (Leviticus 16:8 KJV)

They part my garments among them, and cast lots upon my vesture. (Psalm 22:18 KJV)

And they crucified him, and parted his garments, casting lots: that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet, They parted my garments among them, and upon my vesture did they cast lots. (Matthew 27:35 KJV)

In the image of the two goats we see Messiah as our “sin-offering” that covers our sins from the eyes of the Holy One.  However, he is the provision not only to cover our sins but also to remove them from us altogether.  We discussed previously in our study of the offerings and sacrifices that the service of the Altar is to cover our sins.  But only Messiah Yeshua can take away the sin nature.  It is precisely this imagery that John the Baptist refers to when he identifies Yeshua as the lamb of Elohim.

The next day John seeth Yeshua coming unto him, and saith, Behold the Lamb of Elohim, which taketh away the sin of the world. (John 1:29 KJV)

Once again, we must remember that these rituals are visible words that declare the gospel to us.  There is no mystery or magic involved in these rituals – they are pure proclamation.  Jacob Milgrom writes:

Values are what Leviticus is all about.  They pervade every chapter and almost every verse.  Many may be surprised to read this, since the dominant view of Leviticus is that it consists only of rituals, such as sacrifices and impurities.  This, too, is true: Leviticus does discuss rituals.  However, underlying the rituals, the careful reader will find an intricate web of values that purports to model how we should relate to Elohim and to one another.

Anthropology has taught us that when a society wishes to express and preserve its basic values, it ensconces them in rituals.  How logical!  Words fall from our lips like the dead leaves of autumn, but rituals endure with repetition.  They are visual and participatory.  They embed themselves in memory at a young age, reinforced with each enactment. 

To be sure, when rituals fail to concretize our theological commitment, they become physical oddities, superstitions, or small idolatries.  Ritual is the poetry of religion that leads us to a moment of transcendence.  When a ritual fails because it either lacks content or is misleading, it loses its efficacy and its purpose. A ritual must signify something beyond itself whose attainment enhances the meaning and value of life.  This, I submit, is the quintessence and achievement of Leviticus.[3]

In this case, the ritual proclaims Yeshua as the provision of YHWH who gives himself not only as a substitutionary sacrifice for our sins but also as the one who takes away our sins from us.  As the Psalmist likewise declares:

As far as the east is from the west, so far hath He removed our transgressions from us. (Psalm 103:12 KJV)

I would be remiss in my duty if I did not address the great controversy surrounding this ritual.  At the heart of the controversy is the Hebrew word azazel (ayin, zayin, aleph, zayin, lammed), translated in many English versions of the Scriptures as “scapegoat.”  This Hebrew word appears in the Scriptures only four times, all of which are in this chapter (verse 8, twice in verse 10, and in verse 26).  The literal Hebrew of the passage says that Aaron is to give one lot to YHWH and one lot to azazel.  There are basically three different views as to who or what azazel is and how the word is to be translated.  Samuel E. Balentine presents a clear view of the controversy.

• First, the Septuagint and the Vulgate appear to understand the Hebrew term ‘aza’zel as a combination of two words, ‘ez, “goat,” and ‘azal, “to go away.”  This rendering has been highly influential in English translations, which frequently adopt the term scape-goat (e.g. KJV, NAB), coined by William Tyndale in the sixteenth century to describe the function of the animal that is sent away bearing the blame of others.

• Second, the rabbis interpret ‘aza’zel as a geographical term that designates the place—“a rocky precipice” (Rashi; cf. Targum Pseudo Jonathan)—to which the goat is sent away.  There is some support for this interpretation in Leviticus 16, which states that the goat for Azazel is sent away into the “wilderness” (v. 10) and to a “barren region” (v. 22).

• Third, there is strong evidence in support of understanding ‘aza’zel as the personal name of a divine being.  D.P. Wright has called attention to Hittite banishment rites in which leaders of the army seek relief from a plague by decorating rams with colored wools and then driving them into the open country as offerings of appeasement to whatever god has caused the plague (Wright, Disposal of Impurity, pp. 50-55).  By analogy, we may understand the goat offered to “Azazel” as the counterpart of the goat offered to the “Lord”; as at some point traditional rituals may have understood both recipients of the offering to have been supernatural beings.  Despite a number of congruencies between such Near Eastern rites and Leviticus 16, Wright notes that in Israelite thinking Azazel is portrayed as neither personal nor demonic.  Milgrom makes the same point when he observes that although other cultures may have regarded Azazel as a demonic figure, Israel’s priestly legislators have effectively “eviscerated” this name of any demonic powers (Leviticus 1-16 P. 1021).  It is apparent, nonetheless, that some postbiblical Jewish texts reflect the connection between Azazel and demonic figures…To cite but two of the exemplars, both 1 Enoch 6-16 and Apocalypse of Abraham 13-14 develop a trajectory of interpretation that links Azazel with demonic leaders who foment rebellion against God and are punished by being banished (cf. Isa.14:12-15).  Moreover, the New Testament also likely reflects this tradition, albeit rather obliquely, by associating the one who opposes God with the figure of Satan, who, like Azazel, will be bound and cast into the abyss in the final judgment that ushers in the eschatological kingdom of Christ (cf. Rev 20:1-6, 10).  However, much as the New Testament may draw upon this Jewish tradition of interpretation, it also shapes it in accordance with distinctive Christian affirmations.  In the principal New Testament discussion of the Day of Atonement, Hebrew 6-9, the role of the “scapegoat” is transformed by the work of Christ, whose own blood, shed on a cross outside the city, bears for all eternity the sin of the people.[4] 

Jacob Milgrom clearly sees azazel as a proper name of a previously believed-in demonic entity.

The most plausible explanation is that Azazel is the name of a demon who has been eviscerated of his erstwhile demonic powers by the Priestly legislators.  First, the goat sent to him is not an offering; it is not treated as a sacrifice, requiring slaughter, blood manipulation, and the like, nor does it have the effect of a sacrifice, namely, propitiation, expiation, and so on.  Moreover, an animal laden with impurities would not be acceptable as an offering either to God or a demon (cf. v. 26).  Hence, the Israelites could not have been worshipping Azazel.  Second, the goat is not the vicarious substitute for Israel because there is no indication that it was punished (e.g. put to death) or demonically attacked in Israel’s place.  Instead of being an offering of a substitute, the goat is simply the vehicle to dispatch Israel’s impurities and sins to the wilderness/netherworld (v 21).  The banishment of evil to an inaccessible place is a form of elimination amply attested in the ancient Near East.

Azazel himself is deprived of any active role: he neither receives the goat nor attacks it.  Regardless of his origins—in pre-Israelite practice he was surely a true demon, perhaps a satyr, who ruled in the wilderness—in the Priestly ritual he is no longer a personality but just a name, designating the place to which impurities and sins are banished.  As for the survival of the name Azazel, “demons often survive as figures of speech (e.g., ‘gremlins’) long after they have ceased to be figures of belief.  Accordingly, the mention of a demon’s name in a scriptural text is no automatic testimony to living belief in him.”  Azazel suffers the fate of all angels and spirits in Scripture.  They can represent the powers of the physical world (Ps 104:4; 148:8), but they are not deified (Deut 4:19; 17:3; Job 5:1), and their worship is prohibited (Exod 20:4-5; 22:19 [Eng 20]; Deut 5:7-8).[5]

C.F. Keil seems to concur with Milgrom that Azazel must be a demon of the wilderness.

Azazel, which only occurs in this chapter, signifies neither “a remote solitude” nor any locality in the desert whatever (as Jonathan, Rashi, etc. suppose); nor the “he-goat” (from ‘az, goat, and ‘azal, to turn off, “goat departing or sent away,” as Symn. Theodot., the Vulgate, Luther, and others render it); nor “complete removal” (Bahr, Winer, Tholuck, etc).  The words, one lot for Jehovah and one for Azazel, require unconditionally that Azazel should be regarded as a personal being, in opposition to Jehovah.  The word is a more intense form of ‘azal, removit, dimovit, and comes from ‘azalzel by absorbing the liquid; like Babel from balbel (Gen 11:9), and Golgatha from gulgalta…The Septuagint rendering is correct, o apopompaios; although in v. 10 the rendering apopompa is also adopted, i.e., “averruncus, a fiend or demon, whom one drives away” (Ewald).  We have not to think, however, of any demon whatever who seduces men to wickedness in the form of an evil spirit as the fallen angel Azazel is represented as doing in the Jewish writings (Book of Enoch 8:1; 10:10; 13:1ff), like the terrible field Shibe, whom the Arabs of the peninsula of Sinai so much dread (Seetzen, i. pp. 273-4), but of the devil himself, the head of the fallen angels, who was afterwards called Satan; for no subordinate evil spirit could have been placed in antithesis to Jehovah as Azazel is here, but only the ruler or head of the kingdom of demons.  The desert and desolate places are mentioned elsewhere as the abode of evil spirits (Isa. 13:21; 34:14; Matt. 12:43; Luke 11:24; Rev. 18:2).  The desert, regarded as an image of death and desolation, corresponds to the nature of evil spirits, who fell away from the primary source of life, and in their hostility to God devastated the world, which was created good, and brought death and destruction in their train.[6]

Gordon J. Wenham likewise points out the three basic positions, with heavy emphasis being given to the idea that azazel is a goat-demon of the wilderness.

This goat is said to be for Azazel (vv. 8, 10, 26).  What is meant by the term is uncertain.  Different etymologies are suggested to fit in with different interpretations.  The most popular explanation among commentators is that Azazel is the name of a demon that lived in the wilderness.  Three arguments are adduced in favor of this view.  First, Azazel is in direct contrast with the Lord (v. 8).  Would “the Lord” (Heb. YHWH), God’s personal name, be contrasted with something impersonal?  Second, in later Jewish literature Azazel (Enoch 8:1; 9:6) is the name of a demon.  Third, the OT looks on the wilderness as the haunt of demons and similar creatures (Lev. 17:7; Isa 13:21; 34:14; cf. Matt. 12:34, etc).

Those who adopt this interpretation insist that the goat was not viewed as a sacrifice or gift to Azazel.  The sins of Israel were simply being sent back to their author, Azazel, who lived in the desert.  Despite this disclaimer, it is not difficult to see the rite being misinterpreted as a gift to the demon, if Azazel is a demon’s name.  There is, therefore, force in Hertz’s objection to this view. “The offering of sacrifices to ‘satyrs’ is spoken of as a heinous crime in the very next chapter (17:7); homage to a demon of the wilderness cannot, therefore, be associated with the holiest of the Temple-rites in the chapter immediately preceding.”

Hoffmann and Hertz prefer another interpretation, namely, that Azazel is a rare Hebrew noun meaning “complete destruction.”

A third possibility is that Azazel means “rocky precipice.”  This was Rashi’s explanation.[7] 

Finally, Baruch A. Levine joins the parade, seeking to interpret the word to mean “a demon.”

As noted in the comment to verse 8, Azazel is most likely the name of a wilderness demon, a goat-demon, similar to the se’irim, “goat-demons” mentioned in 17:7 and once worshipped by Israelites.  The identification of Azazel as the demonic ruler of the wilderness enjoyed some currency in late antiquity.  In the apocryphal book of 1 Enoch 6-13, Azazel (also written Azaz’ el) was one of the deposed angels who had cohabited with human women (as recounted in Genesis 6:1-4), the archangel who was given jurisdiction over sorcery, acts of war, and harlotry—all exemplifications of evil.  Cast into the wilderness by the archangel Raphael, Azazel was confined under jagged rocks to live there in darkness until judgment day.  In this manner he came to rule the wilderness.  Although this myth is a transparent attempt to identify Azazel by utilizing an angelology foreign to the original, priestly conception, it nevertheless points to the image of the wilderness as a place of sinfulness and evil, itself a very ancient belief.[8]

The precise meaning of Hebrew ‘aza’zel, found nowhere else in the Bible, has been disputed since antiquity and remains uncertain even to the present time.  Over the centuries, exegesis of this name has followed three lines of interpretation.  According to the first, Azazel is the name of the place in the wilderness to which the scapegoat was dispatched; the term is taken as synonymous with ‘erets gezerah, “inaccessible region” in verse 22.  Verse 10 may also suggest this interpretation.  When translated literally, it reads: “and send it [the he-goat] off to Azazel, to the wilderness.”  Yoma 67b understands ‘aza’zel as “a fierce, difficult land,” taking the first part of the word to mean ‘azz, “strong, fierce.”  According to the second line of interpretation, Azazel describes the goat.  The word ‘aza’zel is a contraction (notarikon) comprised of ‘ez, “goat,” and ‘azal, “to go away,” hence “the goat that goes away.”  This interpretation occurs in both the Septuagint and the Vulgate and underlies the rabbinic characterization sa’ir ha-mishtalleach, “the goat that is dispatched,” in Mishnah Yoma 6:2.  This is, in fact, the interpretation that led to the English rendering “scapegoat” (from “escape-goat”), which first appeared in Tyndale’s English translation of the Bible in 1530.

Both of the above interpretations are contrived.  The third line of interpretation is preferable.  Azazel in later myth was the name given to the demonic ruler of the wilderness.  The derivation of the word is uncertain, but the thematic relationship of Azazel to the se’irim, “goat-demons” of 17:7 suggests that the word ez, “goat” is represented in it.  The form ‘aza’zel may have developed through reduplication of the letter zayin: ez-el, “mighty goat,” was pronounced ezez’el and, finally, ‘aza’zel.[9]

With all of these scholarly explanations given, let me now give a rebuttal to the idea that azazel is a demon.  First, we need to recognize the subtle argument being given by these scholars that the Torah originated with man and developed over time, being edited by various groups throughout the ages.  In other words, these scholars are suggesting that Azazel was a demon worshipped by the children ofIsrael in a pre-monotheistic time.  Now, however, the priestly writers of Leviticus incorporate this ancient name, although devoid of its old meaning, into the current Temple-cleansing ceremony.  All of this points to the idea that the Torah was written by men over a period of time.  This concept defies the very first words of our portion.

And YHWH spake unto Moses after the death of the two sons of Aaron, when they offered before YHWH, and died. (Leviticus 16:1 KJV)

To suggest that azazel is the name of a once-worshipped demon that lost its meaning once the children of Israel realized that there were no such things as demons is to deny that YHWH is the author of the Torah.  Keil bases his understanding on the idea of a balance.  If one goat is for YHWH, the other must likewise be for some divine being in order to balance the scale.  He objects to the idea that azazel may simply be some inferior goat-demon but insists it must be Satan himself.

We have not to think, however, of any demon whatever who seduces men to wickedness in the form of an evil spirit as the fallen angel Azazel is represented as doing in the Jewish writings (Book of Enoch 8:1; 10:10; 13:1ff), like the terrible field Shibe, whom the Arabs of the peninsula of Sinai so much dread (Seetzen, i. pp. 273-4), but of the devil himself, the head of the fallen angels, who was afterwards called Satan; for no subordinate evil spirit could have been placed in antithesis to Jehovah as Azazel is here, but only the ruler or head of the kingdom of demons.[10] 

This idea is completely preposterous!  There is clearly no created being that can balance the scale of YHWH!  He ALONE is Elohim; He has no equal.  The entire universe could not balance the scale against YHWH.  To even suggest that YHWH Himself would command that a goat be sacrificed to Himself and that a living goat be given to a demon of any caliber is unthinkable.  These men are clearly biased in their beliefs.  Modern scholarship likewise has its biases.  What none of these commentators and scholars have considered is what is right before their eyes – that YHWH is the author of the Torah; that the word does indeed mean “scapegoat,” which is quite evident by the context; and that there is no mention of any demons in the Torah.  These scholars also completely miss the Messianic revelation being proclaimed in this ritual.  Not one of these commentators draws the connection between the death and resurrection of Yeshua the Messiah from this powerful ritual.

Most of this talk of Azazel being a demon comes from the fourth century (B.C.E) Book of Enoch, which is an apocalyptic pseudepigraphical[11] writing.  The Book of Enoch is NOT Scripture.  The Book of Enoch is the same source of the corrupted interpretation of Genesis 6.  The idea that the angels in heaven rebelled and married the daughters of men and raised giants is based solely upon this fictional writing.

In those days, when the children of man had multiplied, it happened that there were born unto them handsome and beautiful daughters.  And the angels, the children of heaven, saw them and desired them; and they said to one another, “Come, let us choose wives for ourselves from among the daughters of man and beget us children.”  And Semyaz, being their leader, said unto them, “I fear that perhaps you will not consent that this deed should be done, and I alone will become (responsible) for this great sin.  But they all responded to him, “Let us all swear an oath and bind everyone among us by a curse not to abandon this suggestion but to do the deed.”[12]

Azazel is declared to be the fallen angel who teaches people how to make swords, knives, and other corrupting things.

Azazel taught the people to make swords and armor and shields and breastplates, lessons of angels, and he showed them the metals and their working, and arm bands and decorations and also eye-painting of beautiful eyes, and all kinds of chosen stones and the things fit for dyeing.  ²And there was much ungodliness, and they committed sexual immorality, and they were led astray, and they were ruined in all their ways. (1 Enoch 8:1-2 OPE)

Eventually, he was seen by the angels Michael, Surafel, and Gabriel, and judgment came upon Azazel.

And you see all things that Azazel has done, who has taught all the unrighteousness upon the earth; and he revealed the mysteries of the ages, the things in heaven which the people were pursuing and learning, ⁷and Semiazas, who was given authority to rule over those together with him.  ⁸And they have gone to the people of the earth’s daughters and slept with them and defiled themselves, and revealed to them all sins.  ⁹And the women gave birth to titans, from which all the earth was filled with blood and unrighteousness. (1 Enoch 9:6-9 OPE)

And he said to Raphael: Bind Azazel foot and hand, and cast him into the darkness, and open the desert that is in the Dadouel, and cast him in.  ⁵And lay down upon him rough and jagged rocks and cover him with darkness.  And let him dwell there for eternity, and cover his face so he cannot see light.   ⁶And on the great day of judgment he will be led into the fire.  ⁷And the earth will be healed, which the angels have destroyed, and you will declare the healing of the earth, so that all the people’s children not perish in the whole mystery, in which the Watchers also commanded their children.  ⁸And all the earth has been made desolate, having been destroyed in the works of the teaching of Azazel; and against him write all (his) sins. (1 Enoch 10:4-8 OPE)

It is quite interesting to note that Azazel was bound hand and foot and thrown off a cliff, after which jagged rocks were thrown down upon him to cover him.  The Torah is explicitly clear that the scapegoat is to be presented alive before YHWH and then released alive.

But the goat, on which the lot fell to be the scapegoat, shall be presented alive before YHWH, to make an atonement with him, and to let him go for a scapegoat into the wilderness. (Leviticus 16:10 KJV)

And the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities unto a land not inhabited: and he shall let go the goat in the wilderness. (Leviticus 16:22 KJV)

It is interesting to note that prior to the writing of the Talmud, the practice of releasing the scapegoat had changed.  The Talmud reports that both goats were killed.  The first goat was a sin-offering sacrifice, its fats placed upon the Altar.  The second goat, however, was led out of the camp to a cliff where it was bound and thrown over the cliff and stoned.[13]  Because of this change to the Torah, the proclamation of the death and resurrection of the Messiah has been distorted or lost to the eyes of those who need it most.  We would do well to heed YHWH’S warning against adding to or omitting from the Torah.

Ye shall not add unto the word which I command you, neither shall ye diminish ought from it, that ye may keep the commandments of YHWH your Elohim which I command you. (Deuteronomy 4:2 KJV)

With this matter settled, let us continue on with the service.

After the animals are received, Aaron offers his sin offering.  Next, he takes coals from the Altar of Incense and a handful of incense.  With the blood of his offering and his censer in hand, Aaron then enters the Holy of Holies.  The smoke of the incense provides a protective covering for him.  The blood is sprinkled seven times with his finger upon the Mercy Seat eastward.

Then the first goat is killed, and again, with censer in hand, he enters the Holy of Holies with the blood of the goat and sprinkles it upon the Mercy Seat.  We are told that no person can be in the Tabernacle area at this time.  No one dares to enter the sanctified space during this critical time lest some defilement undo what is being done.

We are told very clearly in the text what the purpose of this ceremony is.

And he shall make an atonement for the holy place, because of the uncleanness of the children of Israel, and because of their transgressions in all their sins: and so shall he do for the tabernacle of the congregation, that remaineth among them in the midst of their uncleanness.  ¹⁷And there shall be no man in the tabernacle of the congregation when he goeth in to make an atonement in the holy place, until he come out, and have made an atonement for himself, and for his household, and for all the congregation of Israel. (Leviticus 16:16-17 KJV)

The English translations say that Aaron makes an “atonement” for the holy place.  There are several issues we need to address in these verses.  First is the definition of the Hebrew word kaphar.  E.W. Bullinger points out that there is no etymological connection between the Hebrew word kaphar (khaf, fey, resh) and the English word “atonement.”  Bullinger writes:

Atonement—the first occurance of the English word.  The Heb. kafar, to cover, gives the essential meaning, as shown in its first occurrence, Gen. 6:14, where it is rendered “pitch (it)”…The English “at-one-ment” has no connection whatever with the Heb. word kafar.[14]

Both Noah Webster’s American Dictionary of the English Language and The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology agree that the English word “atonement” comes from the compounding of the phrase “at-one-ment.”  Implicit in this word is the understanding of being in harmony with, united to, or reconciled with another.  Noah Webster gives us a clear definition of the word “atone”:

To agree, to be in accordance, to stand as an equivalent; to make reparation, amends, or satisfaction for an offense or a crime, by which reconciliation is procured between the offending and offended part.[15]

While I understand how the English translation came about, I do not believe it is the best translation.  The Hebrew word kaphar, as we have already seen, means simply “to cover.”  The ancient Hebrew ideographs make this extremely clear.  The khaf is a picture of an open hand.  The fey is a picture of a mouth.  The resh is a picture of a man’s head.  Together, these pictures convey the idea of a hand covering the mouth of an accuser.  The word kaphar can also be seen in the Hebrew word used for the lid covering the Ark of the Covenant.  The Hebrew word translated as “mercy seat” is kaporet.  Its root khaf, pey (or fey), resh is clearly evident.  I would suggest, therefore, that what Aaron is doing is “covering” the defilement of himself, his household, the children ofIsrael, and the Tabernacle until the provision of YHWH comes to take away the sins of the world.  The blood, like the smoke of the incense, provides a covering that protects the defiled from the Holy One and the Holy One from the defiled.  Without this “covering” neither would be able to commune with the other.

Aaron then goes out to the Altar and smears the blood of the offerings upon the horns of the Altar as well.  This, the Torah tells us, is to cleanse the Tabernacle and the Altar of the defilement of the children ofIsrael.

And he shall sprinkle of the blood upon it with his finger seven times, and cleanse it, and hallow it from the uncleanness of the children of Israel. (Leviticus 16:19 KJV)

Here we must ask ourselves what the defilement of the children ofIsraelis.  What pollution must be covered?  Why is blood the acceptable covering?  To answer these questions we must return to the beginning of this study.  Let us recall that the Tabernacle and the Altar were given as object lessons for the children ofIsrael.  The Tabernacle and the Altar are a part of the revelation of the image of YHWH.  Therefore, whatever happens to the children ofIsraelaffects the image of YHWH.  When the children ofIsraeltransgress the boundaries of the Torah, they defile the image of YHWH.  These defilements must be dealt with.

Normally an individual, upon recognizing the error of his ways, would bring a sin offering, guilt offering, or trespass offering to cover his transgression.  These individual sins are taken care of as soon as the inadvertent sinner realizes that he has sinned (see Leviticus chapters 4-5).  However, within the community ofIsraelthere are those who have not yet realized their sins and those who do not care that they have desecrated the image of YHWH.  These uncovered sins are now dealt with in this yearly ritual of covering.  Blood is the appropriate covering for these transgressions because they acknowledge that life is at stake because of our transgression.  We recognize that our lives are on the line and that the wages of sin are death.  Through the sacrifices we acknowledge that we are not able to stand in the presence of the Holy One because of our trespass, and that because YHWH has graciously made a provision for us, we may continue to commune with Him.  However, we also acknowledge that this provision will substitute his innocent and pure life for our guilty and defiled one.  We also recognize in the spilled blood that the lives of others are on the line if we continue to distort the image of YHWH and present a false image of the Holy One before the nations.

If others follow our errant ways, they too will be consumed by the holiness of YHWH.  The covering of blood declares that our transgressions were wrong and will lead to loss of life.  The blood is clearly a part of the proclamation of the Altar.  We should be clear on the matter that what is being defiled is not the Tabernacle itself – its wood, gold, and linen – but the image of YHWH that it proclaims.  There is no “sin-dust.”  It is the image of Elohim that suffers defilement and must be cleansed.  The ritual of “coverings” declares once again the true image of YHWH.  All the transgressions are covered by blood, declaring them wrong and life-costing.

After this part of the ritual is complete, Aaron lays both his hands upon the scapegoat and confesses over him all the transgressions of the children ofIsrael.  That both hands are placed upon the goat is confirmation that there is no knife in his hand to kill the goat.  This goat is to go free into the wilderness.  Again, the message is about Yeshua, the lamb of Elohim, who will take away the sins of the world.

At this point Aaron removes the linen garments, washes his flesh, puts on the golden garments, and makes the burnt offering for himself and the children ofIsrael.  Again, let us recall that the burnt offering or elevation offering is a declaration of our desire to commune once again with YHWH and elevate or rise up to live in our spiritual nature, where we may again receive pure revelation knowledge.  All those who are involved in this part of the service or with the scapegoat are to bathe their flesh and return to the camp.

We are instructed that this ritual is to happen only once a year and that it is to be a Sabbath when absolutely no work is done.  We are also told that we are to humble our souls on this day.

It shall be a sabbath of rest unto you, and ye shall humble your souls, by a statute for ever. (Leviticus 16:31 KJV)   

Since the destruction of theTemplein 70 A.D. the “Day of Coverings” has become a somber time of introspection, confession, fasting, and extreme piety.  However, this was not always the case.  There is nothing in this portion that commands us to confess or to fast.  In fact, it is possible that originally this was a rather joyous occasion.  Let us recall that the Year of Release and the Jubilee Year both begin on this day.  Milgrom writes:

The annual Day of Purgation for Israel’s sanctuary, the tenth of Tishri, was, at first, entirely dissociated from the notion of a public fast.  Precisely because it was probably the climax of the New Year’s Festival, it must have been altogether joyous in nature.  The original joyousness of the tenth of Tishri is, to be sure, suppressed in the prescriptions for the day (16:29-34; 23:26-32; Num 29:7-11).  Still, the initial intent of the celebration can be adduced from Scripture itself from the fact that the Jubilee Year was proclaimed on this day (Lev 25:9).  The shofar blast proclaimed each fiftieth year as the occasion on which ancestral lands reverted to their owners (25:10-34), and Israelites who, because of indebtedness were sold into slavery, were given their freedom (25:35-59).  Surely, the day that heralded this “year of liberty” (Ezek 46:17; Lev 25:10) was a day of unbridled joy and in no way reflected the sober character of the later Day of Purgation. 

It is, in fact, a later rabbinic source that preserves the best evidence of the original nature of this day: “Rabban Simeon b. Gamliel said: There were no happier days for Israel than the fifteenth of Ab and the Day of Purgation, for on them the daughters of Jerusalem went forth to dance in the vineyards.  And what did they say?  ‘Young man, lift up your eyes and see what you would choose for yourself; set not your eyes on beauty, but set your eyes on family.’” (The image of maidens dancing in the vineyards recalls when Shilonite maidens dancing in the vineyards on the annual “feast of YHWH” were snatched as brides by the surviving Benjaminites, Judg 21:19-24).[16] 

The more somber attitude toward this sacred time is most likely in connection with the somberness celebrated on the 9^th of Av when the destruction of theTemple is remembered and a solemn fast imposed.

While fasting, confession, prayer, and study of the Torah are indeed wonderful spiritual disciplines and acceptable expressions of faith, in celebrating the Day of Coverings we need to be careful that we are not erroneously putting our faith in our displays of piety rather than the mercy and provision of YHWH – Yeshua our Messiah, who is at the heart of the proclamation of this sacred day.  While we may begin the day in the somber awareness of the effects of our transgressions upon our relationship with YHWH, our inability to faithfully embody His image in the world, and, sadly, upon those who may see our errant behavior as normative and acceptable with YHWH, we should still be rejoicing that YHWH has indeed made provision to cover our sins so that we may continue to serve as His chosen vessel.

OUTLINE:

•  Leviticus 12:1-5           Separation due to childbirth
• Leviticus 12:6-8           Restoration after childbirth
• Leviticus 13:1-59         Separation due to tsara’at
• Leviticus 14:1-32         Restoration after tsara’at
• Leviticus 14:33-47       An afflicted house
• Leviticus 14:48-53       A restored house
• Leviticus 14:54-57       Concluding remarks
• Leviticus 15:1-12         Separation due to genital discharges (males)
• Leviticus 15:13-15       Restoration of one afflicted with genital discharges (males)
• Leviticus 15:16-18       Separation and restoration due to seminal discharge
• Leviticus 15:19-24       Separation due to menstrual blood and restoration
• Leviticus 15:25-30       Separation due to genital emissions other than menstrual blood                                           and restoration
• Leviticus 15:31-33       Concluding remarks

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1.  What is the Hebrew name of the third book of the Torah?
2. What are the Greek, Latin, and English names of the third book?
3. Why are these names inappropriate?
4. What two sources make up Leviticus?
5. What is the difference between theHolinessSchoolwriters and the Priestly writers?
6. What is the primary concern of the Priestly material?
7. What are the meanings of tahor and tamei?
8. Is the time of separation a punishment?
9. What is being protected by the distinctions of tahor and tamei?
10. How does all of this relate to us today?

TEACHING:

The Hebrew name of the third book of the Torah is Vayiqra (vav, yud, qof, resh, aleph), taken from the first word of the Hebrew text – vayiqra – which is translated “And He called.”  The traditional rabbinic name of the book of Vayiqra is “Torat HaKohanim” or “The Instructions for/of the Priests.”  We discussed the meaning of this title in the opening portion of the book.  The English name “Leviticus” is derived from the title of the book in the Septuagint – “Levitikon” – which was then translated into Latin as “Levitici,” and may be translated as “Pertaining to the Levites.”  Levitikon, Levitici, and Leviticus are truly inappropriate and erroneous titles for this book.  The most obvious reason that these titles are inappropriate is because the instructions contained in the book are addressed not only to the priests and Levites but also to the whole people of Israel.  The first five chapters of the book begin with an address to all the people of Israel.

 (Leviticus 1:1-2 NRS) YHWH summoned Moses and spoke to him from the tent of meeting, saying: ²Speak to the people of Israel and say to them: When any of you bring an offering of livestock to YHWH, you shall bring your offering from the herd or from the flock.

 Chapters 11-15 are likewise addressed to or involve matters that concern the whole body of Israel: the dietary laws, the laws of personal purity, and the laws concerning tsara’at for persons, clothing, and houses.  The Holiness Code contained in chapters 17-26 is likewise addressed to the whole congregation of Israel.  This leaves only a small portion of material in the book specifically directed towards the Levites and kohanim.[2]

 The second reason the title “Leviticus” is inappropriate or ill-fitting for the third book of the Torah is because the book consists predominantly of Priestly source (P) material.  The P source material was largely written during the reign of King Hezekiah after 722 B.C.E., when the northern kingdom of Israel was sent into exile by the king of Assyria.  As we stated in earlier portions, a great many of these exiles found refuge with the southern tribe of Judah.  During the time of the Judges, when the Tabernacle rested at Shiloh, the Levites and Aaronic priests served together at the Altar.  It is also clear that during the time of the Judges and until the time of the exile of the northern kingdom, there were many altars functioning in Israel.  The Levites, who were dispersed among the various tribes of Israel, often served as priests at the numerous rural altars.

 (Judges 17:7-12 NRS) Now there was a young man of Bethlehem in Judah, of the clan of Judah.  He was a Levite residing there.  ⁸This man left the town of Bethlehem in Judah, to live wherever he could find a place.  He came to the house of Micah in the hill country of Ephraim to carry on his work.  ⁹Micah said to him, From where do you come?  He replied, I am a Levite of Bethlehem in Judah, and I am going to live wherever I can find a place.  ¹⁰Then Micah said to him, Stay with me, and be to me a father and a priest, and I will give you ten pieces of silver a year, a set of clothes, and your living.  ¹¹The Levite agreed to stay with the man; and the young man became to him like one of his sons.  ¹²So Micah installed the Levite, and the young man became his priest, and was in the house of Micah.

 When the kingdoms of Judah and Israel split after the death of King Solomon, Jeroboam, the king ofIsrael, built two new temples, created a new, non-Aaronic and non-Levitical priesthood, and established new cultic practices.

 (1 Kings 12:31-33 NRS) He also made houses on high places, and appointed priests from among all the people, who were not Levites.  ³²Jeroboam appointed a festival on the fifteenth day of the eighth month like the festival that was in Judah, and he offered sacrifices on the altar; so he did in Bethel, sacrificing to the calves that he had made.  And he placed in Bethel the priests of the high places that he had made.  ³³He went up to the altar that he had made in Bethel on the fifteenth day in the eighth month, in the month that he alone had devised; he appointed a festival for the people of Israel, and he went up to the altar to offer incense.

 (1 Kings 13:33 NRS) Even after this event Jeroboam did not turn from his evil way, but made priests for the high places again from among all the people; any who wanted to be priests he consecrated for the high places.

 The priests serving in Jerusalem at the time of the northern exile were Aaronic priests, descended from Aaron.  The Priestly writers were largely Aaronic priests.  Many of those seeking refuge in Judah were likely to be northern nobility and priests from the two temples of Jeroboam and the other rural altars.  For the Priestly writers, the nature and origin of the northern priesthood was dubious at best.  While King Hezekiah sought to welcome and accommodate the northern refugees in hopes of reuniting the kingdom, the priests were concerned with protecting the sanctity of the priesthood and cultic practices at the central Temple in Jerusalem.  A key theme throughout the Priestly source material is the distinction between the Levites and the priests.  For the Priestly writers, the priests were understood to be the descendants of Aaron and his sons exclusively.  According to the Priestly writers, the only legitimate priesthood in Israel was the Aaronic priesthood.  We observe this distinction in several stories in the Torah.

 In the Yahwist (J) source story of Sinai, we read of an unnamed group of priests present at Mount Sinai.

 (Exodus 19:22-24 NRS) Even the priests who approach YHWH must consecrate themselves or YHWH will break out against them.  ²³Moses said to YHWH, The people are not permitted to come up to Mount Sinai; for You Yourself warned us, saying, Set limits around the mountain and keep it holy.  ²⁴YHWH said to him, Go down, and come up bringing Aaron with you; but do not let either the priests or the people break through to come up to YHWH; otherwise He will break out against them.

 The phrase “bringing Aaron with you” was inserted into the J source material by a later redactor, possibly from among the Priestly writers.  The Priestly writers, however, specifically identified Aaron and his sons as the only legitimate priests in Israel.

 (Exodus 28:1 NRS) Then bring near to you your brother Aaron, and his sons with him, from among the Israelites, to serve Me as priests – Aaron and Aaron’s sons, Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar.

 (Exodus 40:12-16 NRS) Then you shall bring Aaron and his sons to the entrance of the tent of meeting, and shall wash them with water, and put on Aaron the sacred vestments, and you shall anoint him and consecrate him, so that he may serve Me as priest.  You shall bring his sons also and put tunics on them,and anoint them, as you anointed their father, that they may serve Me as priests: and their anointing shall admit them to a perpetual priesthood throughout all generations to come.  Moses did everything just as YHWH had commanded him.

 (Leviticus 8:1-10 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ²Take Aaron and his sons with him, the vestments, the anointing oil, the bull of sin offering, the two rams, and the basket of unleavened bread; ³and assemble the whole congregation at the entrance of the tent of meeting.  ⁴And Moses did as YHWH commanded him.  When the congregation was assembled at the entrance of the tent of meeting, ⁵Moses said to the congregation, This is what YHWH has commanded to be done.  ⁶Then Moses brought Aaron and his sons forward, and washed them with water.  ⁷He put the tunic on him, fastened the sash around him, clothed him with the robe, and put the ephod on him.  He then put the decorated band of the ephod around him, tying the ephod to him with it.  ⁸He placed the breastpiece on him, and in the breastpiece he put the Urim and the Thummim.  ⁹And he set the turban on his head, and on the turban, in front, he set the golden ornament, the holy crown, as YHWH commanded Moses.  ¹⁰Then Moses took the anointing oil and anointed the tabernacle and all that was in it, and consecrated them.

 This affirmation of the Aaronic priesthood over against the Levitical priesthood finds its culmination in the Priestly story of the rebellion of Korah, where the Levites seek and are refused the rights of the priesthood.

 (Numbers 16:1-11 NRS) Now Korah son of Izhar son of Kohath son of Levi, along with Dathan and Abiram sons of Eliab, and On son of Peleth – descendants of Reuben – took ²[and] two hundred fifty Israelite men, leaders of the congregation, chosen from the assembly, well-known men, and they confronted Moses.  ³They assembled against Moses and against Aaron, and said to them, You have gone too far!  All the congregation are holy, every one of them, and YHWH is among them.  So why then do you exalt yourselves above the assembly of YHWH?  ⁴When Moses heard it, he fell on his face.  ⁵Then he said to Korah and all his company, In the morning YHWH will make known who is His, and who is holy, and who will be allowed to approach Him; the one whom He will choose He will allow to approach Him.  ⁶Do this: take censers, Korah and all your company, ⁷and tomorrow put fire in them, and lay incense on them before YHWH; and the man whom YHWH chooses shall be the holy one.  You Levites have gone too far!  ⁸Then Moses said to Korah, Hear now, you Levites!  ⁹Is it too little for you that the God of Israel has separated you from the congregation of Israel, to allow you to approach Him in order to perform the duties of YHWH’S tabernacle, and to stand before the congregation and serve them?  ¹⁰He has allowed you to approach Him, and all your brother Levites with you; yet you seek the priesthood as well!  ¹¹Therefore you and all your company have gathered together against YHWH.  What is Aaron that you rail against him?

 Korah and the Levites seek the priesthood and are dramatically refused.  We know that in the end, according to the Priestly account, it is not the Levites but Aaron and his sons who are affirmed as the chosen priests.

 (Numbers 17:1-5 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ²Speak to the Israelites, and get twelve staffs from them, one for each ancestral house, from all the leaders of their ancestral houses.  Write each man’s name on his staff, ³and write Aaron’s name on the staff of Levi.  For there shall be one staff for the head of each ancestral house.  ⁴Place them in the tent of meeting before the covenant, where I meet with you.  ⁵And the staff of the man whom I choose shall sprout; thus I will put a stop to the complaints of the Israelites that they continually make against you.

 (Numbers 17:8-9 NRS) When Moses went into the tent of the covenant on the next day, the staff of Aaron for the house of Levi had sprouted.  It put forth buds, produced blossoms, and bore ripe almonds.  ⁹Then Moses brought out all the staffs from before YHWH to all the Israelites; and they looked, and each man took his staff.

 Clearly, the teachings of the Priestly source material of the book of Vayiqra would be better entitled “Torat HaKohanim” – “The Instructions for/of the Priests” – rather than “Pertaining to the Levites.”  The title “Leviticus” clearly emerged and was influenced by the later writings of the Deuteronomist (D), who again merged the Levites and priests together as one Levitical priesthood.

 (Deuteronomy 17:9 NRS) …where you shall consult with the Levitical priests and the judge who is in office in those days; they shall announce to you the decision in the case.

 (Deuteronomy 17:18 NRS) When he has taken the throne of his kingdom, he shall have a copy of this law written for him in the presence of the Levitical priests.

 (Deuteronomy 18:1 NRS) The Levitical priests, the whole tribe of Levi, shall have no allotment or inheritance within Israel.  They may eat the sacrifices that are YHWH’S portion.

 (Deuteronomy 18:6-8 NRS) If a Levite leaves any of your towns, from wherever he has been residing in Israel, and comes to the place that YHWH will choose (and he may come whenever he wishes), ⁷then he may minister in the name of YHWH his God, like all his fellow-Levites who stand to minister there before YHWH.  ⁸They shall have equal portions to eat, even though they have income from the sale of family possessions.

 (Deuteronomy 27:9 NRS) Then Moses and the Levitical priests spoke to all Israel, saying: Keep silence and hear, O Israel!  This very day you have become the people of YHWH your God.

 For our portion, however, it is important that we recognize the emphasis of the Priestly writers on the authorized Tabernacle, Altar, priesthood, and ritual as the sole means of communion with the Sovereign Creator of the universe.  For the Priestly writers,Israel’s whole existence depended upon communion with YHWH, the source of Israel’s life and blessing.  For communion between the holy and the defiled to take place, it was essential that the proper cultic rituals be performed at the proper Altar by the proper priesthood.  The Levitical priests, as well as the authors of the Holiness Code (Leviticus 17-26), were also concerned with holiness.  In fact, both the Levitical priests and the authors of the Holiness Code were predominantly concerned with the holiness of the whole people of Israel as a projection of the image of YHWH.

 (Numbers 16:3 NRS) They assembled against Moses and against Aaron, and said to them, You have gone too far!  All the congregation are holy, every one of them, and YHWH is among them.  So why then do you exalt yourselves above the assembly of YHWH?

 (Leviticus 10:10-11 NRS) You are to distinguish between the holy and the common, and between the unclean and the clean; ¹¹and you are to teach the people of Israel all the statutes that YHWH has spoken to them through Moses.

 (Leviticus 11:43-45 NRS) You shall not make yourselves detestable with any creature that swarms; you shall not defile yourselves with them, and so become unclean.  ⁴⁴For I am YHWH your God; sanctify yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I am holy.  You shall not defile yourselves with any swarming creature that moves on the earth.  ⁴⁵For I am YHWH who brought you up from the land of Egypt, to be your God; you shall be holy, for I am holy.

 (Leviticus 20:7 NRS) Consecrate yourselves therefore, and be holy; for I am YHWH your God.

 The Priestly writers, on the other hand, were concerned for holiness specifically connected to the Tabernacle, since it was only through the Tabernacle, the Altar, the priesthood, and the proper cultic ritual that the holy and the defiled could dwell together.  The importance placed by the Priestly writers on protecting the sanctity of the Tabernacle and cultic practices is impossible to overemphasize.  For the Priestly writers, the priests were to teach the distinction between “clean” and “unclean” for one reason only – so that the Tabernacle, the dwelling place of YHWH, would not be defiled, resulting in the withdrawal of YHWH’S presence from among the people of Israel.

 (Leviticus 15:31 NRS) Thus you shall keep the people of Israel separate from their uncleanness, so that they do not die in their uncleanness by defiling My tabernacle that is in their midst.

 For the Priestly writers, to defile the Tabernacle/Temple was to threaten the very existence of all Israel and, therefore, to merit death.

 (Numbers 1:50-51 NRS) Rather you shall appoint the Levites over the tabernacle of the covenant, and over all its equipment, and over all that belongs to it; they are to carry the tabernacle and all its equipment, and they shall tend it, and shall camp around the tabernacle.  ⁵¹When the tabernacle is to set out, the Levites shall take it down; and when the tabernacle is to be pitched, the Levites shall set it up.  And any outsider who comes near shall be put to death.

 (Numbers 3:10 NRS) But you shall make a register of Aaron and his descendants; it is they who shall attend to the priesthood, and any outsider who comes near shall be put to death.

 (Numbers 3:38 NRS) Those who were to camp in front of the tabernacle on the east – in front of the tent of meeting toward the east – were Moses and Aaron and Aaron’s sons, having charge of the rites within the sanctuary, whatever had to be done for the Israelites; and any outsider who came near was to be put to death.

 We see an example of the threat of YHWH’S absence from the camp in the narrative of the golden calf.

 (Exodus 33:1-6 NRS) YHWH said to Moses, Go, leave this place, you and the people whom you have brought up out of the land of Egypt, and go to the land of which I swore to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, saying, To your descendants I will give it.  ²I will send an messenger before you, and I will drive out the Canaanites, the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites.  ³Go up to a land flowing with milk and honey; but I will not go up among you, or I would consume you on the way, for you are a stiff-necked people.  ⁴When the people heard these harsh words, they mourned, and no one put on ornaments.  ⁵For YHWH had said to Moses, Say to the Israelites, You are a stiff-necked people; if for a single moment I should go up among you, I would consume you.  So now take off your ornaments, and I will decide what to do to you.  ⁶Therefore the Israelites stripped themselves of their ornaments, from Mount Horeb onward.

 The children of Israel realized that their lives depended upon the presence of YHWH to protect them and provide for them.  The news that YHWH would not be leading them into the promised land moved Israel to repentance.

 Another example of YHWH’S absence from the camp of Israel is found in the story of Eli’s wicked sons.

 (1 Samuel 2:12-17 NRS) Now the sons of Eli were scoundrels; they had no regard for YHWH ¹³or for the duties of the priests to the people.  When anyone offered sacrifice, the priest’s servant would come, while the meat was boiling, with a three-pronged fork in his hand, ¹⁴and he would thrust it into the pan, or kettle, or caldron, or pot; all that the fork brought up the priest would take for himself.  This is what they did at Shiloh to all the Israelites who came there.  ¹⁵Moreover, before the fat was burned, the priest’s servant would come and say to the one who was sacrificing, Give meat for the priest to roast; for he will not accept boiled meat from you, but only raw.  ¹⁶And if the man said to him, Let them burn the fat first, and then take whatever you wish, he would say, No, you must give it now; if not, I will take it by force.  ¹⁷Thus the sin of the young men was very great in the sight of YHWH; for they treated the offerings of YHWH with contempt.

 (1 Samuel 2:22-25 NRS) Now Eli was very old.  He heard all that his sons were doing to all Israel, and how they lay with the women who served at the entrance to the tent of meeting.  ²³He said to them, Why do you do such things?  For I hear of your evil dealings from all these people.  ²⁴No, my sons; it is not a good report that I hear the people of YHWH spreading abroad.  ²⁵If one person sins against another, someone can intercede for the sinner with YHWH; but if someone sins against YHWH, who can make intercession?  But they would not listen to the voice of their father; for it was the will of YHWH to kill them.

 Later, they remove the Ark of the Testimony from the Tabernacle and carry it into battle, where it is captured by the Philistines.  Eli’s two sons are killed in the battle.  Eli, upon hearing the news, falls down and dies.  Eli’s daughter-in-law gives birth when she hears the news and names the child Ichabod.

 (1 Samuel 4:19-22 NRS) Now his daughter-in-law, the wife of Phinehas, was pregnant, about to give birth.  When she heard the news that the ark of God was captured, and that her father-in-law and her husband were dead, she bowed and gave birth; for her labor pains overwhelmed her.  ²⁰As she was about to die, the women attending her said to her, Do not be afraid, for you have borne a son.  But she did not answer or give heed.  ²¹She named the child Ichabod, meaning, The glory has departed from Israel, because the ark of God had been captured and because of her father-in-law and her husband.  ²²She said, The glory has departed from Israel, for the ark of God has been captured.

 The loss of the Ark of the Testimony is understood to be equal to the loss of God’s presence among the people, leaving the people of Israel vulnerable to every evil and calamity.

 We must be very clear to understand that the Priestly concern for the sanctity of the Tabernacle, the Altar, and the priesthood was not just about God protecting Israel from calamity.  While it is true that YHWH’S presence does protect Israel, we must not lose sight of the fact that Israel was called to be the vessel of YHWH’S glorious presence in the world.  It is the Priestly narrative of creation that declares humanity’s purpose as being the vessel by which YHWH would manifest Himself in the world.

 (Genesis 1:26-27 NRS) Then God said, Let Us make humankind in Our image, according to Our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.  ²⁷So God created humankind in His image, in the image of God He created them; male and female He created them.

 At Mount Sinai, Israel was called by God to become the vehicle by which the Sovereign Creator would restore His image in the world.  By keeping the Torah, with its many statutes, ordinances, commandments, and distinctions,Israel would become an appropriate vessel through which YHWH could reveal His glorious presence among His creation.  Protecting the image of God and the relationship between YHWH and His people by protecting the Tabernacle, the Altar, and the Ark of the Testimony from defilement was the primary concern of the Priestly writers.  The people of Israel are specifically associated with the name and image of YHWH.

 (Numbers 6:23-27 NRS) Speak to Aaron and his sons, saying, Thus you shall bless the Israelites: You shall say to them, ²⁴YHWH bless you and keep you; ²⁵YHWH make His face to shine upon you, and be gracious to you; ²⁶YHWH lift up His countenance upon you, and give you peace.  ²⁷So they shall put My name on the Israelites, and I will bless them.

 (Deuteronomy 4:5-7 NRS) See, just as YHWH my God has charged me, I now teach you statutes and ordinances for you to observe in the land that you are about to enter and occupy.  ⁶You must observe them diligently, for this will show your wisdom and discernment to the peoples, who, when they hear all these statutes, will say, Surely this great nation is a wise and discerning people!  ⁷For what other great nation has a god so near to it as YHWH our God is whenever we call to Him?

 At the heart of all of the laws of “clean” (tahor) and “unclean” (tamei) is the idea of being cut off or separated from the Holy One and His dwelling place until the proper procedure of restoration has been followed.  The distinctions of tahor and tamei must be understood in terms of the calling of Israel to be the image of God or the vessel of God’s presence in the world.  The designation tahor is given to those who are in a state of being that is consistent with and appropriate for being the image of God in the world.  The designation tamei describes a state of being that is inconsistent with and inappropriate for being the image or vessel of God.  When we are in the state of tahor, we may draw near to the Holy One, and the Spirit of the Holy One may be manifested in us.  When we are in a state of tamei, we cannot draw near to the Holy One without fear of defiling His image, nor does the Holy One manifest Himself through us while we are tamei.  The priests are charged with teaching the children of Israel these distinctions.

 (Leviticus 10:10-11 NRS) You are to distinguish between the holy and the common, and between the unclean and the clean; ¹¹and you are to teach the people of Israel all the statutes that YHWH has spoken to them through Moses.

 When we are in a state of tamei, we are to separate ourselves from the image of YHWH so as not to pervert, desecrate, distort, or defile His image.  The extent of separation and complexity of the ritual of restitution is dependent upon the level and type of defilement.  For lesser degrees of uncleanness, merely washing with water and separation from the holy things until evening is sufficient to restore one to the community and to the Altar.  Things like eating unclean food, secondary corpse contamination, natural seminal emissions, and other secondary defilement require only minimal separation and washing.

 The Priestly literature prohibits approaching the Tabernacle, participating in the sacred rituals, eating the sacred meat of the sacrifice, and, in some severe cases, even living among the holy people of YHWH while in a defiled or unacceptable state.

 (Leviticus 7:20 NRS) But those who eat flesh from YHWH’S sacrifice of well-being while in a state of uncleanness shall be cut off from their kin.

 We should recall that the offerings, especially the various sh^elamim (peace) offerings, are considered as food offerings or sacred meals shared with YHWH.  The Altar is said to be YHWH’S “table.”

 (Malachi 1:7 NRS) By offering polluted food on My altar.  And you say, How have we polluted it?  By thinking that YHWH’S table may be despised.

 (Malachi 1:12 NRS) But you profane it when you say that YHWH’S table is polluted, and the food for it may be despised.

 (Leviticus 3:11 NRS) Then the priest shall turn these into smoke on the altar as a food offering by fire to YHWH.

 (Deuteronomy 27:4-7 NRS) So when you have crossed over the Jordan, you shall set up these stones, about which I am commanding you today, on Mount Ebal, and you shall cover them with plaster.  ⁵And you shall build an altar there to YHWH your God, an altar of stones on which you have not used an iron tool.  ⁶You must build the altar of YHWH your God of unhewn stones.  Then offer up burnt offerings on it to YHWH your God, ⁷make sacrifices of well-being, and eat them there, rejoicing before YHWH your God.

 The offerings of Israel are referred to in the Torah as qorban, a cognate of the Hebrew word qarav, which means “to draw near.”  Since the Tabernacle, the Altar, and the priesthood are specifically associated with YHWH, we are prohibited from associating ourselves with YHWH while in a state of tamei.  We should not see this time of separation as punishment but as a willing, self-imposed separation from God for the sake of His glorious image.  If we love YHWH, we do not want anything to tarnish or defile His name, reputation, or image in the world.  For the sake of YHWH’S name and image, we must learn the distinctions between tahor and tamei and be willing to separate ourselves from association with YHWH during those times we find ourselves in a state of tamei.  Again, the degree of separation and complexity of the ritual of restoration varies according to the degree we are tamei.  In many instances, the quarantine is only until evening, and the ritual of restitution is simply bathing and/or washing one’s clothing.

 (Leviticus 11:24-25 NRS) By these you shall become unclean; whoever touches the carcass of any of them shall be unclean until the evening, ²⁵and whoever carries any part of the carcass of any of them shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening.

 (Leviticus 11:27-28 NRS) All that walk on their paws, among the animals that walk on all fours, are unclean for you; whoever touches the carcass of any of them shall be unclean until the evening, ²⁸and the one who carries the carcass shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening; they are unclean for you.

 (Leviticus 11:39-40 NRS) If an animal of which you may eat dies, anyone who touches its carcass shall be unclean until the evening.  ⁴⁰Those who eat of its carcass shall wash their clothes and be unclean until the evening; and those who carry the carcass shall wash their clothes and be unclean until the evening.

 (Leviticus 15:16-18 NRS) If a man has an emission of semen, he shall bathe his whole body in water, and be unclean until the evening.  ¹⁷Everything made of cloth or of skin on which the semen falls shall be washed with water, and be unclean until the evening.  ¹⁸If a man lies with a woman and has an emission of semen, both of them shall bathe in water, and be unclean until the evening.

 In other instances, such as childbirth, unhealthy genital emissions, and the plague of tsara’at, the time of quarantine is much longer, and the process of restoration is much more involved.  In the case of a menstruating woman, she is separated from the holy things for a period of seven days.  While the Torah does not specifically state it, it is assumed that the woman will wash herself with water prior to restoration.  At the conclusion of the seven days and the washing with water, the woman is restored to association with the holy things; she is tahor.

 (Leviticus 15:19 NRS) When a woman has a discharge of blood that is her regular discharge from her body, she shall be in her impurity for seven days, and whoever touches her shall be unclean until the evening.

 For men or women with unhealthy genital emissions, the separation lasts seven days after the emission has ceased.  The quarantined person then must bathe, wash his or her clothing, and make a sin offering and burnt offering at the Altar.

 (Leviticus 15:1-3 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying: ²Speak to the people of Israel and say to them: When any man has a discharge from his member, his discharge makes him ceremonially unclean.  ³The uncleanness of his discharge is this: whether his member flows with his discharge, or his member is stopped from discharging, it is uncleanness for him.

 (Leviticus 15:13-15 NRS) When the one with a discharge is cleansed of his discharge, he shall count seven days for his cleansing; he shall wash his clothes and bathe his body in fresh water, and he shall be clean.  ¹⁴On the eighth day he shall take two turtledoves or two pigeons and come before YHWH to the entrance of the tent of meeting and give them to the priest.  ¹⁵The priest shall offer them, one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering; and the priest shall make atonement on his behalf before YHWH for his discharge.

 (Leviticus 15:25 NRS) If a woman has a discharge of blood for many days, not at the time of her impurity, or if she has a discharge beyond the time of her impurity, all the days of the discharge she shall continue in uncleanness; as in the days of her impurity, she shall be unclean.

 (Leviticus 15:28-30 NRS) If she is cleansed of her discharge, she shall count seven days, and after that she shall be clean.  ²⁹On the eighth day she shall take two turtledoves or two pigeons and bring them to the priest to the entrance of the tent of meeting.  ³⁰The priest shall offer one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering; and the priest shall make atonement on her behalf before YHWH for her unclean discharge.

 Childbirth is also a cause for defilement.  The blood after childbirth contains necrotic tissue and toxins that render the mother tamei.  The period of separation for a male child is seven days, followed by a thirty-day period of purification.  The period of separation for a female child is fourteen days, followed by a sixty-day period of purification.  There is no reason given in the Torah for the difference.  Some have speculated that the time for males and females was the same but that YHWH cut the time for males in half so that the mother might attend the Brit Milah (circumcision) of the male child on the eighth day.  Others have said that the time of separation is double for female children because the female child can have genital emissions of her own.  Both of these responses are only speculation.  Once the period of purification is complete and the proper ritual is performed, the mother is declared tahor or acceptable for being the vessel of God’s manifest presence.

 (Leviticus 12:1-8 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ²Speak to the people of Israel, saying: If a woman conceives and bears a male child, she shall be ceremonially unclean seven days; as at the time of her menstruation, she shall be unclean.  ³On the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised.  ⁴Her time of blood purification shall be thirty-three days; she shall not touch any holy thing, or come into the sanctuary, until the days of her purification are completed.  ⁵If she bears a female child, she shall be unclean two weeks, as in her menstruation; her time of blood purification shall be sixty-six days.  ⁶When the days of her purification are completed, whether for a son or for a daughter, she shall bring to the priest at the entrance of the tent of meeting a lamb in its first year for a burnt offering, and a pigeon or a turtledove for a sin offering.  ⁷He shall offer it before YHWH, and make atonement on her behalf; then she shall be clean from her flow of blood.  This is the law for her who bears a child, male or female.  ⁸If she cannot afford a sheep, she shall take two turtledoves or two pigeons, one for a burnt offering and the other for a sin offering; and the priest shall make atonement on her behalf, and she shall be clean.

 The most severe form of tamei is clearly that of tsara’at or leprosy.  I want to be very clear that tsara’at, although translated as “leprosy,” is not Hansen’s disease, which is commonly called “leprosy” today.  Tsara’at is an affliction from YHWH.  It is generally associated with sin.  It is a progressive affliction designed by the Holy One to drive the afflicted to repentance.  When the signs of this affliction are observed, the afflicted must confirm the symptoms by showing himself to the priest.  The priest diagnoses the affliction, but he performs no medical or healing ritual.  Depending on the length and depth of the affliction, the afflicted is separated from the camp and must remain in quarantine outside the community until the affliction has ceased.

 (Leviticus 13:1-3 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying: ²When a person has on the skin of his body a swelling or an eruption or a spot, and it turns into a leprous disease on the skin of his body, he shall be brought to Aaron the priest or to one of his sons the priests.  ³The priest shall examine the disease on the skin of his body, and if the hair in the diseased area has turned white and the disease appears to be deeper than the skin of his body, it is a leprous disease; after the priest has examined him he shall pronounce him ceremonially unclean.

 (Leviticus 13:9-11 NRS) When a person contracts a leprous disease, he shall be brought to the priest.  ¹⁰The priest shall make an examination, and if there is a white swelling in the skin that has turned the hair white, and there is quick raw flesh in the swelling, ¹¹it is a chronic leprous disease in the skin of his body.  The priest shall pronounce him unclean; he shall not confine him, for he is unclean.

 The afflicted soul is restored to communion with YHWH only after an extremely elaborate ritual is performed.  There are three parts to this ritual of restoration.  The first part involves a purification rite using two birds.

 (Leviticus 14:1-7 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ²This shall be the ritual for the leprous person at the time of his cleansing: He shall be brought to the priest; ³the priest shall go out of the camp, and the priest shall make an examination.  If the disease is healed in the leprous person, ⁴the priest shall command that two living clean birds and cedar wood and crimson yarn and hyssop be brought for the one who is to be cleansed.  ⁵The priest shall command that one of the birds be slaughtered over fresh water in an earthen vessel.  ⁶He shall take the living bird with the cedar wood and the crimson yarn and the hyssop, and dip them and the living bird in the blood of the bird that was slaughtered over the fresh water.  ⁷He shall sprinkle it seven times upon the one who is to be cleansed of the leprous disease; then he shall pronounce him clean, and he shall let the living bird go into the open field.

 The second part of the ritual involves washing one’s clothes, shaving one’s hair, and bathing, after which one may return to the community.

 (Leviticus 14:8-9 NRS) The one who is to be cleansed shall wash his clothes, and shave off all his hair, and bathe himself in water, and he shall be clean.  After that he shall come into the camp, but shall live outside his tent seven days.  ⁹On the seventh day he shall shave all his hair: of head, beard, eyebrows; he shall shave all his hair.  Then he shall wash his clothes, and bathe his body in water, and he shall be clean.

 The third part of the ritual provides restoration to the Altar and the holy things.

 (Leviticus 14:10-20 NRS) On the eighth day he shall take two male lambs without blemish, and one ewe lamb in its first year without blemish, and a grain offering of three-tenths of an ephah of choice flour mixed with oil, and one log of oil.  ¹¹The priest who cleanses shall set the person to be cleansed, along with these things, before YHWH, at the entrance of the tent of meeting.  ¹²The priest shall take one of the lambs, and offer it as a guilt offering, along with the log of oil, and raise them as an elevation offering before YHWH.  ¹³He shall slaughter the lamb in the place where the sin offering and the burnt offering are slaughtered in the holy place; for the guilt offering, like the sin offering, belongs to the priest: it is most holy.  ¹⁴The priest shall take some of the blood of the guilt offering and put it on the lobe of the right ear of the one to be cleansed, and on the thumb of the right hand, and on the big toe of the right foot.  ¹⁵The priest shall take some of the log of oil and pour it into the palm of his own left hand, ¹⁶and dip his right finger in the oil that is in his left hand and sprinkle some oil with his finger seven times before YHWH.  ¹⁷Some of the oil that remains in his hand the priest shall put on the lobe of the right ear of the one to be cleansed, and on the thumb of the right hand, and on the big toe of the right foot, on top of the blood of the guilt offering.  ¹⁸The rest of the oil that is in the priest’s hand he shall put on the head of the one to be cleansed.  Then the priest shall make atonement on his behalf before YHWH: ¹⁹the priest shall offer the sin offering, to make atonement for the one to be cleansed from his uncleanness.  Afterward he shall slaughter the burnt offering; ²⁰and the priest shall offer the burnt offering and the grain offering on the altar.  Thus the priest shall make atonement on his behalf and he shall be clean.

 For the Priestly writers, this system of separation and restoration was primarily to protect the relationship between Israel and YHWH.  YHWH’S presence among the children ofIsraelwas essential to the existence of Israel.  YHWH’S presence among the children of Israel was also essential to the restoration of the image of YHWH in the world.  The threat of polluting the image of YHWH, the Torah, and the prescribed rituals by the influx of questionable priests from the northern kingdom with their questionable practices made the Priestly source material essential to the life and continued ministry of the whole people of Israel.

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 OUTLINE:

•  Leviticus 9:1-11           Aaron offers the chatta’t offering for the priests
• Leviticus 9:12-14         Aaron offers the ‘olah offering for the priests
• Leviticus 9:15              Aaron offers the chatta’t offering for the people
• Leviticus 9:16              Aaron offers the ‘olah offering for the people
• Leviticus 9:17              Aaron offers the minchah and tamid offerings
• Leviticus 9:18-21         Aaron offers the sh^elamim offering
• Leviticus 9:22-23         Aaron blesses the people
• Leviticus 9:24              Fire from YHWH consumes the offering
•  Leviticus 10:1-3           The deaths of Nadav and Avihu
• Leviticus 10:4-7           The prohibition for priests against corpse contamination
• Leviticus 10:8-9           The prohibition against drinking wine when serving
• Leviticus 10:10-11       The priestly duty to teach distinctions
• Leviticus 10:12-15       The priestly portion
• Leviticus 10:16-20       A matter of the heart
•  Leviticus 11:1-47         The dietary distinctions

 STUDY QUESTIONS:

1.  What are the two sources of the book of Leviticus?
2. What is the major difference between the P and H materials?
3. When was the P material written?
4. What was the major concern of the P material?
5. Why was it necessary to establish Aaron and his sons as the authorized priesthood?
6. How does YHWH affirm Aaron and his sons as the authorized priests?
7. How does YHWH affirm that the prescribed ritual is the only acceptable one?
8. Does the Torah teach that Nadav and Avihu are evil?
9. Of what are Nadav and Avihu guilty?
10. What is the primary responsibility of the priesthood?

TEACHING:

 The book of Vayiqra or Leviticus is a compilation of two different source materials, which largely divide the book in half.  Leviticus 1-16 is largely Priestly (P) source material, while Leviticus 17-26 is Holiness School (H) material.  In his book The Sanctuary of Silence: The Priestly Torah and the Holiness School, Israel Knohl points out some of the differences between these two sources.

 The Holiness Code is unique not only in its language and style but also in its belief, ritual, and legal contents.  Unlike the P code, which concentrates on the realm of ritual, ignoring issues of social organizations and cut off from agricultural life, the Holiness Code combines laws concerning the Temple and sacrifices with legal and social rules, and it shows real concern for agricultural life.  Another difference between P and H is revealed in their connection with non-Priestly sources in the Torah (J, E, and D): the H layer shows a closeness to these sources that is absent in the P layer.[2]

 While there are some H source insertions into the text of our portion (i.e., Leviticus 10:6-7, 10:8-11, and 11:43-45), the majority of our portion is clearly P source material.  Both the Priestly source material and Holiness School material are obviously concerned with purity and holiness.  The P source material, however, is specifically focused upon purity in relation to the priesthood, the Altar, the Tabernacle/Temple, and the presence of God.  The Holiness School, on the other hand, emphasizes the broader need for all Israel to be pure and holy in every aspect of its life.  At the heart of the P source material is the specific declaration that there is one God in Israel and that there is only one Altar and one priesthood, which is designated as the authorized mediator between the people of Israel and their one God.

 The P source material was most likely written during the time of King Hezekiah.  Understanding the socio-political and religious context in which the P material was written will help to explain the text’s emphasis on the authorized priesthood.

 According to the biblical narrative, the people of Israel lived in the promised land as a confederation of tribes ruled by tribal leaders and judges from the time of Joshua to the time of David.  According to archaeological evidence, the people of Israel were divided into two kingdoms, with the Israelites living in the north central hill country (Samaria) and the kingdom of Judah living in the south central hill country.  We should recognize that these two kingdoms existed prior to the split between Rehoboam and Jeroboam after the death of King Solomon.  These two kingdoms were temporarily united under the reign of King David (ca. 1005-965 B.C.E.).

 (2 Samuel 2:10 NRS) Ishbaal, Saul’s son, was forty years old when he began to reign over Israel, and he reigned two years.  But the house of Judah followed David.

 (2 Samuel 3:1 NRS) There was a long war between the house of Saul and the house of David; David grew stronger and stronger, while the house of Saul became weaker and weaker.

 (2 Samuel 5:1-4 NRS) Then all the tribes of Israel came to David at Hebron, and said, Look, we are your bone and flesh.  ²For some time, while Saul was king over us, it was you who led out Israel and brought it in.  YHWH said to you: It is you who shall be shepherd of My people Israel, you who shall be ruler over Israel.  ³So all the elders of Israel came to the king at Hebron; and King David made a covenant with them at Hebron before YHWH, and they anointed David king over Israel.  ⁴David was thirty years old when he began to reign, and he reigned forty years.

 After David’s death, King Solomon reigned over the united kingdom for forty years (ca. 968-928 B.C.E.).

 (1 Kings 4:21 NRS) Solomon was sovereign over all the kingdoms from the Euphrates to the land of the Philistines, even to the border of Egypt; they brought tribute and served Solomon all the days of his life.

 After Solomon’s death, Rehoboam ascended the throne and promptly redivided the kingdoms.

 (1 Kings 11:43 NRS) Solomon slept with his ancestors and was buried in the city of his father David; and his son Rehoboam succeeded him.

 (1 Kings 12:1 NRS) Rehoboam went to Shechem, for all Israel had come to Shechem to make him king.

 (1 Kings 12:3-5 NRS) And they sent and called him; and Jeroboam and all the assembly of Israel came and said to Rehoboam, ⁴Your father made our yoke heavy.  Now therefore lighten the hard service of your father and his heavy yoke that he placed on us, and we will serve you.  ⁵He said to them, Go away for three days, then come again to me.  So the people went away.

 (1 Kings 12:13-14 NRS) The king answered the people harshly.  He disregarded the advice that the older men had given him ¹⁴and spoke to them according to the advice of the young men, My father made your yoke heavy, but I will add to your yoke; my father disciplined you with whips, but I will discipline you with scorpions.

 (1 Kings 12:16 NRS) When all Israel saw that the king would not listen to them, the people answered the king, What share do we have in David?  We have no inheritance in the son of Jesse.  To your tents, O Israel!  Look now to your own house, O David.  So Israel went away to their tents.

 While Rehoboam remained king in Judah(928-911 B.C.E.), Jeroboam became king in Israel(928-907 B.C.E.).

 (1 Kings 12:20 NRS) When all Israel heard that Jeroboam had returned, they sent and called him to the assembly and made him king over all Israel.  There was no one who followed the house of David, except the tribe of Judah alone.

 To discourage his subjects from returning their loyalty to Judah, Jeroboam established two new temples, a new priesthood, and a new religious calendar of festivals for the northern kingdom of Israel.

 (1 Kings 12:26-29 NRS) Then Jeroboam said to himself, Now the kingdom may well revert to the house of David.  ²⁷If this people continues to go up to offer sacrifices in the house of YHWH at Jerusalem, the heart of this people will turn again to their master, King Rehoboam of Judah; they will kill me and return to King Rehoboam of Judah.  ²⁸ So the king took counsel, and made two calves of gold.  He said to the people, You have gone up to Jerusalem long enough.  Here are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt.  ²⁹He set one in Bethel, and the other he put in Dan.

 (1 Kings 12:31-32 NRS) He also made houses on high places, and appointed priests from among all the people, who were not Levites.  ³²Jeroboam appointed a festival on the fifteenth day of the eighth month like the festival that was in Judah, and he offered sacrifices on the altar; so he did in Bethel, sacrificing to the calves that he had made.  And he placed in Bethel the priests of the high places that he had made.

 These competing temples, high places, altars, and priesthoods continued to function for two centuries until the Assyrian destruction of the northern kingdom in 722 B.C.E.  The Assyrian destruction of Israel took place while Hezekiah was reigning in Judah(ca. 727-698 B.C.E.).  Many of the Israelites sought refuge in the southern kingdom of Judah.  Due to the influx of Israelite refugees, as well as refugees from the conquered rural foothills of Judah, it is reported that the overall population of Judah increased by thirty percent in two generations.[3]  The population and size of Jerusalem went from 8,000 people on 32 acres in the ninth century B.C.E. to 30,000 people on 130 acres in the time of Hezekiah (ca. 700 B.C.E.).[4]

 The earliest source materials for the Torah are the J (Yahwist) and E (Elohist) sources.  The J source material was largely preserved and transmitted in the southern kingdom of Judah, while the E source material was largely preserved and transmitted in the northern kingdom of Israel.  When the northern kingdom was conquered, the refugees from Israel brought their stories, customs, beliefs, and priests with them.  While both kingdoms spoke a common language and claimed a common heritage, their stories, views of God, and cultic practices were clearly different.  King Hezekiah sought to reunite the divided kingdoms into one kingdom.  A part of Hezekiah’s platform was to centralize power and religion in Jerusalem.  The Priestly material was written in part to address the problem of religious diversity between the two kingdoms.

Israel’s golden calves, numerous altars, high places, and unauthorized priesthood were understood to be the reason for the northern kingdom’s destruction.

 (Jeremiah 3:6-8 NRS) YHWH said to me in the days of King Josiah: Have you seen what she did, that faithless one, Israel, how she went up on every high hill and under every green tree, and played the whore there?  ⁷And I thought, After she has done all this she will return to Me; but she did not return, and her false sister Judah saw it.  ⁸She saw that for all the adulteries of that faithless one, Israel, I had sent her away with a decree of divorce; yet her false sister Judah did not fear, but she too went and played the whore.

 Therefore, the Priestly material seeks to affirm that the only legitimate priesthood in Judah and Israel is the Aaronic priesthood and that the only acceptable means of communion with the Holy One of Israel is through the Tabernacle/Temple service.  While the JE source material places a great emphasis upon the prophet Moses, the P source material tends to shift the focus from the prophet Moses to the priest Aaron.  This P source elevation of Aaron can be observed in the repeated phrase “Moses and Aaron” in the P material.

 (Exodus 7:1-3 NRS) YHWH said to Moses, See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron shall be your prophet.  ²You shall speak all that I command you, and your brother Aaron shall tell Pharaoh to let the Israelites go out of his land.  ³But I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, and I will multiply My signs and wonders in the land of Egypt.

 (Exodus 7:6 NRS) Moses and Aaron did so; they did just as YHWH commanded them.

 (Exodus 7:8-12 NRS) YHWH said to Moses and Aaron, ⁹When Pharaoh says to you, Perform a wonder, then you shall say to Aaron, Take your staff and throw it down before Pharaoh, and it will become a snake.  ¹⁰So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and did as YHWH had commanded; Aaron threw down his staff before Pharaoh and his officials, and it became a snake.  ¹¹Then Pharaoh summoned the wise men and the sorcerers; and they also, the magicians of Egypt, did the same by their secret arts.  ¹²Each one threw down his staff, and they became snakes; but Aaron’s staff swallowed up theirs.

 (Exodus 7:19-20 NRS) YHWH said to Moses, Say to Aaron, Take your staff and stretch out your hand over the waters of Egypt – over its rivers, its canals, and its ponds, and all its pools of water – so that they may become blood; and there shall be blood throughout the whole land of Egypt, even in vessels of wood and in vessels of stone.  ²⁰Moses and Aaron did just as YHWH commanded.  In the sight of Pharaoh and of his officials he lifted up the staff and struck the water in the river, and all the water in the river was turned into blood.

 In the above verses, as well as in many other P portions of the Torah, we clearly see the elevation of Aaron to a position of honor equal to that of Moses.  It is interesting to note that the E source material from the northern kingdom preserves and transmits the story of Aaron making the golden calf (Exodus 32), while the P source material makes no mention of this incident.  Instead, the P source material preserves and transmits the story of Moses striking the rock a second time (Numbers 20), which is absent from the E source material.  In the final version of the Torah, we understand that both Aaron and Moses are equally prohibited from entering the promised land.

 The shift of focus from Moses to Aaron is made explicitly clear in the P source consecration ceremony given in Leviticus.  The P material repeatedly affirms that Aaron and his descendants are the only legitimate priesthood in all of Israel.  In the earlier J account of the events of Mount Sinai, YHWH gives the priests permission to draw near with Moses.

 (Exodus 19:20-24 NRS) When YHWH descended upon Mount Sinai, to the top of the mountain, YHWH summoned Moses to the top of the mountain, and Moses went up.  ²¹Then YHWH said to Moses, Go down and warn the people not to break through to YHWH to look; otherwise many of them will perish.  ²²Even the priests who approach YHWH must consecrate themselves or YHWH will break out against them.  ²³Moses said to YHWH, The people are not permitted to come up to Mount Sinai; for You Yourself warned us, saying, Set limits around the mountain and keep it holy.  ²⁴YHWH said to him, Go down, and come up (bringing Aaron with you); but do not let either the priests or the people break through to come up to YHWH; otherwise He will break out against them.

 In the J material, “the priests” remain undefined.  A later Priestly redactor added the words “bringing Aaron with you.”  In the P account of the events at Sinai, however, the writer clearly identifies Aaron and his sons as the privileged priests.

 (Exodus 28:1 NRS) Then bring near to you your brother Aaron, and his sons with him, from among the Israelites, to serve Me as priests – Aaron and Aaron’s sons, Nadav and Avihu, Eleazar and Ithamar.

 In the Priestly book of Vayiqra/Leviticus, we observe the official sanctification of Aaron and his sons as the authorized priesthood of Israel.

 (Leviticus 8:1-10 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ²Take Aaron and his sons with him, the vestments, the anointing oil, the bull of sin offering, the two rams, and the basket of unleavened bread; ³and assemble the whole congregation at the entrance of the tent of meeting.  ⁴And Moses did as YHWH commanded him.  When the congregation was assembled at the entrance of the tent of meeting, ⁵Moses said to the congregation, This is what YHWH has commanded to be done.  ⁶Then Moses brought Aaron and his sons forward, and washed them with water.  ⁷He put the tunic on him, fastened the sash around him, clothed him with the robe, and put the ephod on him.  He then put the decorated band of the ephod around him, tying the ephod to him with it.  ⁸He placed the breastpiece on him, and in the breastpiece he put the Urim and the Thummim.  ⁹And he set the turban on his head, and on the turban, in front, he set the golden ornament, the holy crown, as YHWH commanded Moses.  ¹⁰Then Moses took the anointing oil and anointed the tabernacle and all that was in it, and consecrated them.

 (Leviticus 8:22-30 NRS) Then he brought forward the second ram, the ram of ordination.  Aaron and his sons laid their hands on the head of the ram, ²³and it was slaughtered.  Moses took some of its blood and put it on the lobe of Aaron’s right ear and on the thumb of his right hand and on the big toe of his right foot.  ²⁴After Aaron’s sons were brought forward, Moses put some of the blood on the lobes of their right ears and on the thumbs of their right hands and on the big toes of their right feet; and Moses dashed the rest of the blood against all sides of the altar.  ²⁵He took the fat – the broad tail, all the fat that was around the entrails, the appendage of the liver, and the two kidneys with their fat – and the right thigh.  ²⁶From the basket of unleavened bread that was before YHWH, he took one cake of unleavened bread, one cake of bread with oil, and one wafer, and placed them on the fat and on the right thigh.  ²⁷He placed all these on the palms of Aaron and on the palms of his sons, and raised them as an elevation offering before YHWH.  ²⁸Then Moses took them from their hands and turned them into smoke on the altar with the burnt offering.  This was an ordination offering for a pleasing odor, an offering by fire to YHWH.  ²⁹Moses took the breast and raised it as an elevation offering before YHWH; it was Moses’ portion of the ram of ordination, as YHWH commanded Moses.  ³⁰Then Moses took some of the anointing oil and some of the blood that was on the altar and sprinkled them on Aaron and his vestments, and also on his sons and their vestments.  Thus he consecrated Aaron and his vestments, and also his sons and their vestments.

 For seven days Aaron and his sons underwent the process of consecration.

 (Leviticus 8:33-36 NRS) You shall not go outside the entrance of the tent of meeting for seven days, until the day when your period of ordination is completed.  For it will take seven days to ordain you; ³⁴as has been done today, YHWH has commanded to be done to make atonement for you.  ³⁵You shall remain at the entrance of the tent of meeting day and night for seven days, keeping YHWH’S charge so that you do not die; for so I am commanded.  ³⁶Aaron and his sons did all the things that YHWH commanded through Moses.

 Let us recall that the number seven is associated with spiritual completeness or perfection.  The number eight, on the other hand, is associated with new beginnings.  While last week’s portion concluded with the seven days of consecration, this week’s portion begins with the eighth day and the beginning of Aaron’s priestly service.

 (Leviticus 9:1 NRS) On the eighth day Moses summoned Aaron and his sons and the elders of Israel.

 What we observe in the opening part of this portion is the beginning of the reign of Aaron and his sons as the official, authorized, and exclusive priesthood of Israel.  While this exclusive authority and honor will be challenged throughout Israel’s history (mostly by other Levites), it is this account of the consecration of Aaron and his sons at Sinai that will serve as the foundation for the claim of exclusivity.

 We should note that while Moses presided over the sacrifices and offerings of the seven days of consecration, it is Aaron who performs the priestly functions on the eighth day, with Moses serving only as instructor.

 (Leviticus 9:2 NRS) He said to Aaron, Take a bull calf for a sin offering and a ram for a burnt offering, without blemish, and offer them before YHWH.

 (Leviticus 9:7-11 NRS) Then Moses said to Aaron, Draw near to the altar and sacrifice your sin offering and your burnt offering, and make atonement for yourself and for the people; and sacrifice the offering of the people, and make atonement for them; as YHWH has commanded.  ⁸Aaron drew near to the altar, and slaughtered the calf of the sin offering, which was for himself.  ⁹The sons of Aaron presented the blood to him, and he dipped his finger in the blood and put it on the horns of the altar; and the rest of the blood he poured out at the base of the altar.  ¹⁰But the fat, the kidneys, and the appendage of the liver from the sin offering he turned into smoke on the altar, as YHWH commanded Moses; ¹¹and the flesh and the skin he burned with fire outside the camp.

 The final affirmation of Aaron and his sons as the authorized priests comes in the final verses of chapter nine.

 (Leviticus 9:22-24 NRS) Aaron lifted his hands toward the people and blessed them; and he came down after sacrificing the sin offering, the burnt offering, and the offering of well-being.  ²³Moses and Aaron entered the tent of meeting, and then came out and blessed the people; and the glory of YHWH appeared to all the people.  ²⁴Fire came out from YHWH and consumed the burnt offering and the fat on the altar; and when all the people saw it, they shouted and fell on their faces.

 After completing everything as commanded, the fire of YHWH consumes the offering from off the Altar, assuring all observers that it is an acceptable sacrifice.

 Asserting and affirming Aaron and his sons as the exclusive, authorized priests of Israel is only half of the purpose of the P source material.  The Priestly writers also sought to assert and affirm that the prescribed cultic rituals of the Tabernacle/Temple are the only acceptable offerings.  We observed that when Moses and the people of Israel did exactly what YHWH had commanded, the Shekinah of YHWH dwelt among them.

 (Exodus 39:43 NRS) When Moses saw that they had done all the work just as YHWH had commanded, he blessed them.

 (Exodus 40:16 NRS) Moses did everything just as YHWH had commanded him.

 (Exodus 40:34-35 NRS) Then the cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the glory of YHWH filled the tabernacle.  ³⁵Moses was not able to enter the tent of meeting because the cloud settled upon it, and the glory of YHWH filled the tabernacle.

 The pillar of smoke and fire was the affirmation that Moses and the people of Israel had indeed fulfilled YHWH’S prescribed instructions.  In this portion, Aaron and his sons likewise do exactly what YHWH commanded, and the ritual is affirmed by YHWH’S acceptance of their offering.  By fire, the Holy One declares the offering of Aaron and his sons as acceptable.

 (Leviticus 9:22-24 NRS) Aaron lifted his hands toward the people and blessed them; and he came down after sacrificing the sin offering, the burnt offering, and the offering of well-being.  ²³Moses and Aaron entered the tent of meeting, and then came out and blessed the people; and the glory of YHWH appeared to all the people.  ²⁴Fire came out from YHWH and consumed the burnt offering and the fat on the altar; and when all the people saw it, they shouted and fell on their faces.

 Further affirming the exclusive acceptability of the divinely prescribed ritual is the story of the grave results of unauthorized rituals.  In the story of Nadav and Avihu, we are given an emphatic warning about presumptuous and unauthorized offerings.

 (Leviticus 10:1-2 NRS) Now Aaron’s sons, Nadav and Avihu, each took his censer, put fire in it, and laid incense on it; and they offered unholy fire before YHWH, such as He had not commanded them.  ²And fire came out from the presence of YHWH and consumed them, and they died before YHWH.

 While many traditions exist that paint Nadav and Avihu in a negative light, this is not the case in the Torah itself.  Some have claimed that Nadav and Avihu offend YHWH by offering fire from a pagan altar.  Such a view must be dismissed on the basis that Nadav and Avihu were quarantined to the Tabernacle Courtyard for seven days.  It is unlikely that between the close of the seven days of consecration and the eighth day of beginning their priestly service, Nadav and Avihu quickly ran to a pagan altar and stole some “strange” fire.  Based upon the juxtaposition of the prohibition against drinking (Leviticus 10:8-9) with the story reporting the deaths of Nadav and Avihu, some have stated that the sons of Aaron were drunk.  Again, I would offer the same defense as above – Aaron and his sons were seven days in the Tabernacle Courtyard, consecrating themselves to a holy life of priestly service.  It is unlikely that the sons of Aaron would show up drunk on their first day of service.  That Nadav and Avihu are not counted as evil by YHWH is affirmed in the words of Moses following their deaths.

 (Leviticus 10:3 NRS) Then Moses said to Aaron, This is what YHWH meant when He said, Through those who are near Me I will show Myself holy, and before all the people I will be glorified.  And Aaron was silent.

 We should understand that Nadav and Avihu are guilty of nothing more than enthusiastic presumption and overzealous service.  It would appear from the narrative that Nadav and Avihu are so caught up in the ceremony and glorious presence of YHWH that they presume to make an offering to YHWH that is not prescribed.  Such overzealous, self-prescribed offerings are not acceptable to YHWH.  The Priestly writer clearly warns against enthusiastically and presumptuously making sacrifices and offerings apart from those prescribed by the Torah, officiated by the authorized priests, and offered at the authorized Altar located at the Tabernacle/Temple of YHWH.  We should note that this effort of centralization through exclusivity is later affirmed by the Deuteronomist, who wrote during the time of King Josiah.

 (Deuteronomy 12:4-8 NRS) You shall not worship YHWH your God in such ways.  ⁵But you shall seek the place that YHWH your God will choose out of all your tribes as His habitation to put His name there.  You shall go there, ⁶bringing there your burnt offerings and your sacrifices, your tithes and your donations, your votive gifts, your freewill offerings, and the firstlings of your herds and flocks.  ⁷And you shall eat there in the presence of YHWH your God, you and your households together, rejoicing in all the undertakings in which YHWH your God has blessed you.  ⁸You shall not act as we are acting here today, all of us according to our own desires.

 (Deuteronomy 16:5-6 NRS) You are not permitted to offer the Passover sacrifice within any of your towns that YHWH your God is giving you.  ⁶But at the place that YHWH your God will choose as a dwelling for His name, only there shall you offer the Passover sacrifice, in the evening at sunset, the time of day when you departed from Egypt.

 By limiting Israel’s cultic worship to the authorized Altar, rituals, and priesthood, the Torah seeks to protect the sanctity of the Tabernacle/Temple from defilement and to prevent the defilement of the people through idolatrous practices.  By protecting the sanctity of both the people and the sanctuary of YHWH, the priests assure YHWH’S protecting and life-giving presence among the nation ofIsrael.

 The central importance of the authorized priesthood is further affirmed in the prohibition against Aaron and his sons defiling themselves through various mourning practices.

 (Leviticus 10:6-7 NRS) And Moses said to Aaron and to his sons Eleazar and Ithamar, Do not dishevel your hair, and do not tear your vestments, or you will die and wrath will strike all the congregation; but your kindred, the whole house of Israel, may mourn the burning that YHWH has sent.  ⁷You shall not go outside the entrance of the tent of meeting, or you will die; for the anointing oil of YHWH is on you.  And they did as Moses had ordered.

 This prohibition will be affirmed again later in the Holiness Code.

 (Leviticus 21:1-2 NRS) YHWH said to Moses: Speak to the priests, the sons of Aaron, and say to them: No one shall defile himself for a dead person among his relatives, ²except for his nearest kin: his mother, his father, his son, his daughter, his brother.

 (Leviticus 21:10-12 NRS) The priest who is exalted above his fellows, on whose head the anointing oil has been poured and who has been consecrated to wear the vestments, shall not dishevel his hair, nor tear his vestments.  ¹¹He shall not go where there is a dead body; he shall not defile himself even for his father or mother.  ¹²He shall not go outside the sanctuary and thus profane the sanctuary of his God; for the consecration of the anointing oil of his God is upon him: I am YHWH.

 The prohibition against drinking alcohol prior to serving at the Altar may also be understood in relation to mourning the dead.

 (Leviticus 10:8-9 NRS) And YHWH spoke to Aaron: ⁹Drink no wine or strong drink, neither you nor your sons, when you enter the tent of meeting, that you may not die; it is a statute forever throughout your generations.

 Aaron and his sons are the primary protectors of Israel.  By protecting the sanctity of both the sanctuary of YHWH and the people, Aaron assures YHWH’S ability to dwell among the people of Israel.  It is to this end that the Holiness source material charges Aaron and his sons with the responsibility of teaching all Israel both the proper protocol for approaching YHWH (Leviticus 1-6) and the difference between the sacred and the profane – the tahor (clean) and the tamei (unclean).

 (Leviticus 10:10-11 NRS) You are to distinguish between the holy and the common, and between the unclean and the clean; ¹¹and you are to teach the people of Israel all the statutes that YHWH has spoken to them through Moses.

 While the P source material’s primary focus is on the authorized Altar, priesthood, and prescribed cultic activity, it extends as well to the purity of the people through the teaching ministry of the priests.  The people of Israel must be pure and holy if they are to approach the Holy One of Israel.  The authorized priests are to teach the people of Israel how to distinguish between the sacred and the profane – the tahor (clean) and the tamei (unclean).  The making of such distinctions began with the setting apart of sacred time and sacred space.

 (Genesis 2:1-3 NRS) Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all their multitude.  ²And on the seventh day God finished the work that He had done, and He rested on the seventh day from all the work that He had done.  ³So God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it, because on it God rested from all the work that He had done in creation.

 (Exodus 15:17 NRS) You brought them in and planted them on the mountain of Your own possession, the place, O YHWH, that You made Your abode, the sanctuary, O YHWH, that Your hands have established.

 (Exodus 25:8 NRS) And have them make Me a sanctuary, so that I may dwell among them.

 (Exodus 26:33 NRS) You shall hang the curtain under the clasps, and bring the ark of the covenant in there, within the curtain; and the curtain shall separate for you the holy place from the most holy.

 In our portion the people of Israel are also taught to sanctify their diet.

 (Leviticus 11:1-4 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying to them: ²Speak to the people of Israel, saying: From among all the land animals, these are the creatures that you may eat.  ³Any animal that has divided hoofs and is cleft-footed and chews the cud – such you may eat.  ⁴But among those that chew the cud or have divided hoofs, you shall not eat the following: the camel, for even though it chews the cud, it does not have divided hoofs; it is unclean for you.

 (Leviticus 11:9-12 NRS) These you may eat, of all that are in the waters.  Everything in the waters that has fins and scales, whether in the seas or in the streams – such you may eat.  ¹⁰But anything in the seas or the streams that does not have fins and scales, of the swarming creatures in the waters and among all the other living creatures that are in the waters – they are detestable to you ¹¹and detestable they shall remain.  Of their flesh you shall not eat, and their carcasses you shall regard as detestable.  ¹²Everything in the waters that does not have fins and scales is detestable to you.

 (Leviticus 11:13-19 NRS) These you shall regard as detestable among the birds.  They shall not be eaten; they are an abomination: the eagle, the vulture, the osprey, ¹⁴the buzzard, the kite of any kind; ¹⁵every raven of any kind; ¹⁶the ostrich, the nighthawk, the sea gull, the hawk of any kind; ¹⁷the little owl, the cormorant, the great owl, ¹⁸the water hen, the desert owl, the carrion vulture, ¹⁹the stork, the heron of any kind, the hoopoe, and the bat.

 (Leviticus 11:20-22 NRS) All winged insects that walk upon all fours are detestable to you.  ²¹But among the winged insects that walk on all fours you may eat those that have jointed legs above their feet, with which to leap on the ground.  ²²Of them you may eat: the locust according to its kind, the bald locust according to its kind, the cricket according to its kind, and the grasshopper according to its kind.

 For the author of the Priestly source, these dietary laws are directly connected to concern over the sanctity of the Altar and the sanctuary.

 (Leviticus 7:21 NRS) When any one of you touches any unclean thing – human uncleanness or an unclean animal or any unclean creature – and then eats flesh from YHWH’S sacrifice of well-being, you shall be cut off from your kin.

 For the Holiness School, however, these distinctions are much broader and should be seen in connection with Israel as a “priestly people.”

 (Exodus 19:5-6 NRS) Now therefore, if you obey My voice and keep My covenant, you shall be My treasured possession out of all the peoples.  Indeed, the whole earth is Mine, ⁶but you shall be for Me a priestly kingdom and a holy nation.  These are the words that you shall speak to the Israelites.

 (Leviticus 11:43-45 NRS) You shall not make yourselves detestable with any creature that swarms; you shall not defile yourselves with them, and so become unclean.  ⁴⁴For I am YHWH your God; sanctify yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I am holy.  You shall not defile yourselves with any swarming creature that moves on the earth.  ⁴⁵For I am YHWH who brought you up from the land of Egypt, to be your God; you shall be holy, for I am holy.

 If we are to be the image of the living God, then we too must be holy as He is holy.  This holiness is not a holiness of a specific and limited time and space; it is a holiness that permeates our lives in every time and every space.  While we have observed that there are varying degrees of sanctity, our task is to learn how to sanctify our entire lives through the keeping of the Torah and by learning and keeping the distinctions of YHWH.  Learning these distinctions of time, space, and diet help us to live within the boundaries of the covenant and to manifest the image of the Holy One in our lives.

OUTLINE:

• Exodus 12:1-2             The calendar
• Exodus 12:3-5             The selection of the victim
• Exodus 12:6-7             The slaughtering of the victim
• Exodus 12:8-11           The Passover meal
• Exodus 12:12-13         YHWH’S actions on the Passover
• Exodus 12:14-20         Instructions for the Feast of Unleavened Bread
• Exodus 12:21-23         Instructions for the application of the blood
• Exodus 12:24-27         The command to celebrate Passover
• Exodus 12:28-29         The events of Passover
• Exodus 12:30-39         The people of Israelare expelled from Egypt
• Exodus 12:40-42         The concluding formula of events
• Exodus 12:43-50         Further instructions for the celebration of the events
• Exodus 12:51              The exodus
• Exodus 13:1-2             Instructions concerning the firstborn
• Exodus 13:3-10           Instructions concerning the Feast of Unleavened Bread
• Exodus 13:11-16         Instructions concerning the firstborn

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. In a traditional Seder, what do the four questions represent?
2. What do the questions in the text reveal about ancientIsrael?
3. From what perspective are the questions asked?
4. From what perspective are they answered?
5. What was the primary means of communication in ancientIsrael?
6. What do rituals and symbols serve as in nonliterate cultures?
7. How do the P and E sources differ?
8. How do the socio-political changes inIsraelaffect the feast?
9. What restrictions did the Deuteronomist place on the celebration?
10. What is the difference between secular and sacred meat?
11. Can old dogs be taught new tricks?  Can old rituals be given new meanings?
12. What is the focus of our celebration today?

TEACHING:

The four questions, which are generally asked by one of the young children in attendance at the traditional Passover Seder, are one identifying feature of the Passover festivities.

 1)    On all other nights we eat either leavened bread of unleavened; on this night, why only unleavened bread?

 2)    On all other nights we eat herbs of any kind; on this night, why only bitter herbs?

 3)    On all other nights we do not dip our herbs even once; on this night, why do we dip them twice?

 4)    On all other nights we eat either sitting upright or leaning; on this night, why do we eat in a leaning position only?[2]

 Answering these questions provides the opportunity to tell the story of the Passover from the traditional Haggadah.  The sages find the basis for these four questions in the four questions alluded to in the Torah and raised by the descendants of those who came out of Egypt.

 (Exodus 12:26 NRS) And when your children ask you, What do you mean by this observance?

 (Exodus 13:8 NRS) You shall tell your child on that day, It is because of what YHWH did for me when I came out of Egypt.

 (Exodus 13:14 NRS) When in the future your child asks you, What does this mean? you shall answer, By strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery.

 (Deuteronomy 6:20 NRS) When your children ask you in time to come, What is the meaning of the decrees and the statutes and the ordinances that YHWH our God has commanded you?

 The sages explain these biblical questions as representing four different types of sons – wise, wicked, simple, and ignorant.

 What does the wise son say?  “What are the testimonies and the statutes and the laws that Hashem, our God, has commanded you?” (Devarim 6:20).  You, in turn, should tell him all about the laws of the Pesach sacrifice, [for instance]: “One may not eat any dessert after the meat of the Pesach sacrifice.”

 What does the wicked son say?  “What is this service to you?” (Shemot 12:26) – implying “to you,” but not “to him”!  Because he excludes himself from the rest of the community, he has denied a fundamental principle.  You, in turn, should set his teeth on edge (i.e., cause him aggravation) and tell him: “Because of this Hashem did for me when I left Egypt” (ibid. 13:8) – implying “for me” but not “for him”!  If he had been there then, he would not have been redeemed.

 What does the simple son say?  “What is this?” (ibid. 13:14).  And you shall say to him: “With a strong hand Hashem the Lord took us out of Egypt, from the house of bondage (ibid.)”

 As for the one who does not know enough to ask questions – you must open him up (i.e., introduce the subject yourself), as it says, “You shall tell your child on that day: ‘Because of this Hashem did for me when I left Egypt.’”[3]

 There are numerous commentaries by the rabbis and sages on the nature of these four sons’ questions and their subsequent answers.  For the purpose of this teaching, however, I want to focus on only two aspects of these questions.

 First, let us note the oral/aural nature of the questions and their answers.  Even in the biblical narrative the assumption is that these questions will be asked orally and answered orally.  While the questions have since been written down, we should note that even in the traditional Passover Seder, the intention is for the four questions to be asked and answered aloud for everyone to hear.  In many respects, the preservation of such an oral/aural exchange speaks of the antiquity of the practice.  It is clear from the biblical narrative that teaching was largely done in an oral/aural manner.  In the older J and E source materials in the Torah, more emphasis is placed upon what Moses “said” rather than what he “wrote.”  We should understand, however, that in oral/aural or non-literate cultures, spoken words were not the only means of communication.  Rituals and symbols served, in many respects, as “visible words” in non-literate cultures.  People learned not only from what was heard but also from what was observed.  Without the benefit of written texts to preserve history, memorization, repeated rehearsals, and customs helped to keep the meaningful past fresh and alive.  Thomas Meyer writes:

 The traditions of an oral society had the advantage of an undeniable intimacy and directness with the divine word which are somewhat lost when the stories are written down.  Putting words down permanently in writing places them outside the heart, while the seat of emotion lies inside the heart.  A literate culture can indeed have a rich and imaginative religious literature, but its dependence on the written word alone inevitably creates distance between the community and its faith and practice.  The greater part of ancient literature was intended for the ears more than the eyes.[4]

 When it comes to Scripture, we may rightly add that it was intended for the heart rather than the book.

 (Deuteronomy 6:6 NRS) Keep these words that I am commanding you today in your heart.

 (Deuteronomy 30:14 NRS) No, the word is very near to you; it is in your mouth and in your heart for you to observe.

 (Psalm 37:31 NRS) The Torah of their God is in their hearts; their steps do not slip.

 (Psalm 40:8 NRS) I delight to do Your will, O my God; Your Torah is within my heart.

 (Psalm 119:11 NRS) I treasure Your word in my heart, so that I may not sin against You.

 The Word treasured in the heart is a living word that speaks from the heart.

 (Luke 6:45 NRS) The good person out of the good treasure of the heart produces good, and the evil person out of evil treasure produces evil; for it is out of the abundance of the heart that the mouth speaks.

 (2 Corinthians 3:1-2 NRS) Are we beginning to commend ourselves again?  Surely we do not need, as some do, letters of recommendation to you or from you, do we?  ²You yourselves are our letter, written on our hearts, to be known and read by all.

 (2 Corinthians 3:6 NRS) …who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant, not of letter but of spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life.

 (Hebrews 4:12 NRS) Indeed, the word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing until it divides soul from spirit, joints from marrow; it is able to judge the thoughts and intentions of the heart.

 Clearly, the oral/aural means of preserving, transmitting, and communicating important and identifying historical events in the lives of a people meant that these words and events were to be kept in the hearts of the people.  Rituals and public recitations were the primary means of both transmitting the sacred history of the people and keeping these events alive in the hearts of the people.  Even when these stories were eventually written down, the written text was intended to serve and support the living memories of the people.

 The emphasis on memorization was an anthropological phenomenon among cultures that influenced Jewish thought and practice.  The mind or heart stood at the center of the oral-written crossing point in the regions within their sphere of influences.  The focus on these surrounding cultures was on inscribing their most precious traditions on the insides of their people.  Within this context, copies of texts served as solidified reference points for recitation and memorization of their respective traditions.[5]

 By ritually celebrating the identifying sacred events, the people of Israel not only transmitted their history to the next generation but also gave the next generation an opportunity to participate in the event as it was relived through the ritual and recitation.  The prescribed rituals provide the people of each generation an opportunity to participate in the living history of their ancestors.  Such rituals and recitations create continuity throughout the generations.  This sense of living history is a critical characteristic of the oral/aural culture.  When YHWH commands the children of Israel to “remember” or “memorialize” an event, we should understand the command in this living sense.  The celebrations of the Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread, as well as the consecration of the firstborn, were to be living history for the people of Israel throughout all their generations.  For this reason we instruct not only from the written text (the Bible) but also by rehearsing the events in the ears and eyes of our people.

 Such an appointed teaching event is often referred to as a miqra’.  The Hebrew word miqra’ (mem, qof, resh, aleph) is often translated as “convocation,” “gathering,” or “assembly.”

 (Exodus 12:16 NRS) On the first day you shall hold a solemn assembly (miqra’ qodesh), and on the seventh day a solemn assembly (miqra’ qodesh); no work shall be done on those days; only what everyone must eat, that alone may be prepared by you.

 The Hebrew word miqra’ can also mean “rehearsal.”  The appointed celebrations may be understood as “holy rehearsals,” when we are to rehearse past events.  The word miqra’ is a cognate of the Hebrew root word qara’ (qof, resh, aleph), which, in later Hebrew, came to mean “to read.”

 (Nehemiah 8:3 NRS) He read (vayiqra) from it facing the square before the Water Gate from early morning until midday, in the presence of the men and the women and those who could understand; and the ears of all the people were attentive to the book of the Torah.

 William M. Schniedewind points out the fact that the word qara’ originally meant “to call out” or “to proclaim.”

 It is significant that the Hebrew language originally did not even have a separate word meaning “to read.”  Rather, the biblical Hebrew verb qara’ means “to call out,” “proclaim” and was only rarely used in the sense of “to read aloud” as an extension of its primary meaning.  In later biblical literature, however, we have the public “reading” of Scripture.[6]

 (Deuteronomy 31:10-11 NRS) Moses commanded them: Every seventh year, in the scheduled year of remission, during the festival of booths, ¹¹when all Israel comes to appear before YHWH your God at the place that He will choose, you shall read (tiqra’) this Torah before all Israel in their hearing.

 The miqra’ qodesh (solemn assembly) may rightly be understood as a “solemn reading” or, better said, a “solemn proclaiming.”  As we seek to celebrate Pesach/Chag HaMatzot, we should understand that by rehearsing and proclaiming these events, we are bringing our history to life for another generation.

 The second aspect we should recognize regarding the questions asked during a traditional Passover Seder is that they ask about current practices but are given answers from the past.  The questions are raised because of what is happening during the present ceremony.  The answers, however, seek to root the current practices in past events.  We should understand that the Bible is written in much the same way.  The practices and customs celebrated at the time the Bible was written had been passed down orally for generations.  The shape of the customs and practices of celebrating, as preserved in the written text, are contemporary with the writing of the Bible.  The authors sought to root their contemporary practices and customs in the historical events of the past.  The events of the Passover and exodus occurred sometime in the thirteenth century B.C.E.  The Bible was not written until the ninth through the fifth centuries B.C.E.  It is not difficult to imagine that these traditions and customs morphed, changed, and evolved over 400 years.  We can see the beginning of this evolution of the celebration even in the testimony of the Scriptures themselves.  We should not be shaken by these changes; rather, we should understand that we are reading about a living faith, a living people, a living Word, and a living God, who addresses each generation anew.  With this said, let us now turn our attention to the various instructions concerning the celebration of Passover/Chag HaMatzot.

 As we stated in the first part of this teaching, many of the rituals performed during the time of the Passover in Egypt may have had their roots in ancient nomadic/pastoral customs.  Several different scholars have suggested that the Passover slaughtering and blood rituals have their roots in the rituals of ancient nomads and pastoralists.  Both R. De Vaux and H.J. Kraus saw connections between the Passover and a nomadic Arab nocturnal spring festival that preceded the seasonal migration.  This festival usually took place around the time of the full moon after the vernal equinox and was performed without the necessity of priests or altars.  The purpose of this festival was apotropaic[7] in nature and was meant to protect the people and flocks from evil or demonic threats during the journey from one pastureland to the next.[8]  G. Beer sees a broader base for the origin of the complex ritual of Passover.

 According to G. Beer, Passover originally consisted of three separate springtime festivals.  One was a nocturnal firstling sacrifice held at full moon, which was part of the Israelite nomadic heritage.  After the settlement in Canaan, it was performed only by the people of Judah.  In contrast to the majority of scholars who posit that the family dwelling was the place of its observance, Beer holds that it was held in local sanctuaries as an introductory rite for the harvest season.  The sacrificial animal had divine properties.  It was consumed with unleavened bread because leaven was regarded as ritually impure.  At some stage in commemoration of the tenth plague, a smearing of blood was introduced into the original pattern.  The innovation changed the place of its observance.[9]

 In the time of Josiah, this firstling sacrifice achieved a status of national ceremony; its observance was limited to the central shrine in Jerusalem; the sacrificial animal did not have to be a firstling anymore; the rite of the blood smearing was abandoned; the ritual was no longer held as a commemoration of the tenth plague, but of the exodus.  The flesh was now boiled instead of roasted.[10]

 The people in the northern kingdom had their own version of a vernal nocturnal festival, held at the full moon.  It was the Feast of Unleavened Bread, observed before the spring harvest.  According to Beer, the feast may have lasted either one or seven days.  The third feast, also held in the spring, was the offering of the first sheaf of barley and was held at the local shrines.[11]

 The merging between the southern Passover and the northern Feast of Unleavened Bread came as a consequence of the religious reform of Ezekiel.[12]

 Julius Wellhausen likewise sees the root of the Passover in these early nomadic/pastoral rituals and seeks to demonstrate this through the biblical narrative itself.  Wellhausen writes:

 In point of fact, the Pesach points back to the sacrifice of the firstlings (Exo. xxxiv, 18 seq., xii, 12 seq.; Deut. xv, 14 seq., xvi, 1 seq.), and it is principally upon this that the historical character of the whole festivity hinges.  It is because Jehovah smote the firstborn of Egypt and spared those of Israel that the later firstborn thence forward are held sacred to him.[13]

 Because Pharaoh refuses to allow the Hebrews to offer to their God the firstlings of cattle that are his due, Jehovah seizes from him the firstborn of men.  Thus the Exodus is not the occasion of the festival, but the festival of the occasion…

 The only view sanctioned by the nature of the case is that the Israelite custom of offering the firstling gave rise to the narrative of the slaying of the firstborn of Egypt; unless the custom be presupposed, the story is inexplicable, and the peculiar selection of its victims by the plague is left without a motive.[14]

 While these ancient customs may have already been familiar to our ancestors, their association with the events of the exodus clearly assigns them new meanings.  The assignment of new associations and meanings to older, familiar practices is nothing unusual for the Torah.  We observe a clear example of this reassignment of meaning by comparing the fourth commandment as it appears in the book of Exodus and as it appears in the book of Deuteronomy.

 (Exodus 20:8-11 NRS) Remember the Sabbath day, and keep it holy.  ⁹Six days you shall labor and do all your work.  ¹⁰But the seventh day is a Sabbath to YHWH your God; you shall not do any work – you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns.  ¹¹For in six days YHWH made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore YHWH blessed the Sabbath day and consecrated it.

 (Deuteronomy 5:12-15 NRS) Observe the Sabbath day and keep it holy, as YHWH your God commanded you.  ¹³Six days you shall labor and do all your work.  ¹⁴But the seventh day is a Sabbath to YHWH your God; you shall not do any work – you, or your son or your daughter, or your male or female slave, or your ox or your donkey, or any of your livestock, or the resident alien in your towns, so that your male and female slave may rest as well as you.  ¹⁵Remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and YHWH your God brought you out from there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore YHWH your God commanded you to keep the Sabbath day.

 The reason or motivation given for keeping the Sabbath in the Exodus version is associated with YHWH resting on the seventh day after completing creation.  In the Deuteronomy version, however, the reason or motivation for observing the Sabbath is associated with our liberation from Egypt.  Concerning the Sabbath, we should recognize that one association does not negate the other, yet it is clear that an older custom, the Sabbath observance, takes on new significance because of its new association with the exodus.

 YHWH may well have utilized familiar pastoral and agricultural rituals to comfort the children ofIsraeland communicate with them during the awesome events of the exodus.  It would seem quite appropriate for YHWH, as the Shepherd of His people, to have the Israelites perform a familiar seasonal, migratory apotropaic ritual for the protection of the flocks prior to moving His people to a new pastureland flowing with milk and honey.  By utilizing the familiar ancient rituals in this way, the old symbols take on new meaning.  Originally, this ancient ritual was only associated with the seasonal migration of sheep.  After the reassignment, however, the ancient apotropaic ritual was associated with YHWH leading His people to greener pastures.  The instructions concerning the celebration of these events clearly reflect the new meanings of the symbols.

The instructions given to the children of Israel concerning the Passover were given in two parts.  The first part concerns the actual historical event, which we discussed in the first segment of this teaching.  The second part of the Passover/Feast of Unleavened Bread instructions presented involves the later celebration of the historical event.  The first instructions regarding the celebration of the historical event come from the P source material.

 (Exodus 12:14-20 NRS) This day shall be a day of remembrance for you.  You shall celebrate it as a festival to YHWH; throughout your generations you shall observe it as a perpetual ordinance.  ¹⁵Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread; on the first day you shall remove leaven from your houses, for whoever eats leavened bread from the first day until the seventh day shall be cut off from Israel.  ¹⁶On the first day you shall hold a solemn assembly, and on the seventh day a solemn assembly; no work shall be done on those days; only what everyone must eat, that alone may be prepared by you.  ¹⁷You shall observe the festival of unleavened bread, for on this very day I brought your companies out of the land of Egypt: you shall observe this day throughout your generations as a perpetual ordinance.  ¹⁸In the first month, from the evening of the fourteenth day until the evening of the twenty-first day, you shall eat unleavened bread.  ¹⁹For seven days no leaven shall be found in your houses; for whoever eats what is leavened shall be cut off from the congregation of Israel, whether an alien or a native of the land.  ²⁰You shall eat nothing leavened; in all your settlements you shall eat unleavened bread.

 (Exodus 12:42-49 NRS) That was for YHWH a night of vigil, to bring them out of the land of Egypt.  That same night is a vigil to be kept for YHWH by all the Israelites throughout their generations.  ⁴YHWH said to Moses and Aaron: This is the ordinance for the Passover: no foreigner shall eat of it, ⁴⁴but any slave who has been purchased may eat of it after he has been circumcised; ⁴⁵no bound or hired servant may eat of it.  ⁴⁶It shall be eaten in one house; you shall not take any of the animal outside the house, and you shall not break any of its bones.  ⁴⁷The whole congregation of Israel shall celebrate it.  ⁴⁸If an alien who resides with you wants to celebrate the Passover to YHWH, all his males shall be circumcised; then he may draw near to celebrate it; he shall be regarded as a native of the land.  But no uncircumcised person shall eat of it; ⁴⁹there shall be one law for the native and for the alien who resides among you.

 The E source material gives the following instructions for celebrating the historical event:

 (Exodus 12:24-27 NRS) You shall observe this rite as a perpetual ordinance for you and your children.  ²⁵When you come to the land that YHWH will give you, as He has promised, you shall keep this observance.  ²And when your children ask you, What do you mean by this observance? ²⁷you shall say, It is the Passover sacrifice to YHWH, for He passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt, when He struck down the Egyptians but spared our houses.  And the people bowed down and worshipped.

 (Exodus 13:1-16 NRS) YHWH said to Moses: ²Consecrate to Me all the firstborn; whatever is the first to open the womb among the Israelites, of human beings and animals, is Mine.  ³Moses said to the people, Remember this day on which you came out of Egypt, out of the house of slavery, because YHWH brought you out from there by strength of hand; no leavened bread shall be eaten.  ⁴Today, in the month of the aviv, you are going out.  ⁵When YHWH brings you into the land of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites, which He swore to your ancestors to give you, a land flowing with milk and honey, you shall keep this observance in this month.  ⁶Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread, and on the seventh day there shall be a festival to YHWH.  ⁷Unleavened bread shall be eaten for seven days; no leavened bread shall be seen in your possession, and no leaven shall be seen among you in all your territory.  ⁸You shall tell your child on that day, It is because of what YHWH did for me when I came out of Egypt.  ⁹It shall serve for you as a sign on your hand and as a reminder on your forehead, so that the teaching of YHWH may be on your lips; for with a strong hand YHWH brought you out of Egypt.  ¹⁰You shall keep this ordinance at its proper time from year to year.  ¹¹When YHWH has brought you into the land of the Canaanites, as He swore to you and your ancestors, and has given it to you, ¹²you shall set apart to YHWH all that first opens the womb.  All the firstborn of your livestock that are males shall be YHWH’S.  ¹³But every firstborn donkey you shall redeem with a sheep; if you do not redeem it, you must break its neck.  Every firstborn male among your children you shall redeem.  ¹⁴When in the future your child asks you, What does this mean? you shall answer, By strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery.  ¹⁵When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, YHWH killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals.  Therefore I sacrifice to YHWH every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.  ¹⁶It shall serve as a sign on your hand and as an emblem on your forehead that by strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt.

 It is interesting to note that the P source material seems to put more emphasis upon the Feast of Unleavened Bread than the Passover sacrifice.  This emphasis on the Feast of Unleavened Bread may be a reflection of a later development in the celebration.  Remember that the P material was written in King Hezekiah’s time, when cultic practices were being centralized.  King Hezekiah tore down the rural altars to YHWH.

 (2 Kings 18:3 NRS) He [Hezekiah] did what was right in the sight of YHWH just as his ancestor David had done.

 (2 Kings 18:22 NRS) But if you say to me, We rely on YHWH our God, is it not He whose high places and altars Hezekiah has removed, saying to Judah and to Jerusalem, You shall worship before this altar in Jerusalem?

 (2 Chronicles 32:12 NRS) Was it not this same Hezekiah who took away His high places and His altars and commanded Judah and Jerusalem, saying, Before one altar you shall worship, and upon it you shall make your offerings?

 (Isaiah 36:7 NRS) But if you say to me, We rely on YHWH our God, is it not He whose high places and altars Hezekiah has removed, saying to Judah and to Jerusalem, You shall worship before this altar?

 This was not necessarily a popular change.  King Hezekiah’s son Manasseh was quick to reestablish these rural altars when he ascended the throne.

 (2 Kings 21:3 NRS) For he rebuilt the high places that his father Hezekiah had destroyed; he erected altars for Baal, made a sacred pole, as King Ahab of Israel had done, worshipped all the host of heaven, and served them.

 Given Hezekiah’s reforms, it would be logical that the P material would de-emphasize a slaughtering that was previously performed without priests and away from the central Altar.

 From the P source material, we glean the following instructions:

 The Pesach is to be slaughtered between the evenings on the fourteenth day of the month of the aviv barley.

 The meat of the Pesach must be eaten in the home, not outside.  No bone of the Pesach is to be broken.  It is to be roasted by fire, not baked or boiled (Exodus 12:8-9).

 The celebration is to be a remembrance (zikaron) and a feast (chag) to YHWH.

 The Pesach/Chag HaMatzot is an ordinance (chuqa) to be kept perpetually throughout every generation.

 All leaven (se’or) is to be removed and no leavened bread (chametz) is to be eaten.

 The first and last days of the celebration are to be solemn assemblies (miqra’ey qodesh), when no work other than the preparation of the necessary food for the feast is permitted.

 Only the circumcised (members of the covenant) are permitted to participate in the feast.

 We receive additional instructions for the celebration of Pesach/Chag HaMatzot in later P source material.

 During the entire seven days, there is to be an offering by fire (Leviticus 23:8).

 (Numbers 28:16-25 NRS) On the fourteenth day of the first month there shall be a Passover offering to YHWH.  ¹⁷And on the fifteenth day of this month is a festival; seven days shall unleavened bread be eaten.  ¹⁸On the first day there shall be a holy convocation.  You shall not work at your occupations.  ¹⁹You shall offer an offering by fire, a burnt offering to YHWH: two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs a year old; see that they are without blemish.  ²⁰Their grain offering shall be of choice flour mixed with oil: three-tenths of an ephah shall you offer for a bull, and two-tenths for a ram; ²¹one-tenth shall you offer for each of the seven lambs; ²²also one male goat for a sin offering, to make atonement for you.  ²³You shall offer these in addition to the burnt offering of the morning, which belongs to the regular burnt offering.  ²⁴In the same way you shall offer daily, for seven days, the food of an offering by fire, a pleasing odor to YHWH; it shall be offered in addition to the regular burnt offering and its drink offering.  ²⁵And on the seventh day you shall have a holy convocation; you shall not work at your occupations.[15]

Those who cannot celebrate Pesach at the appropriate time due to circumstances beyond their control may celebrate it in the second month.

 (Numbers 9:10-14 NRS) Speak to the Israelites, saying: Anyone of you or your descendants who is unclean through touching a corpse, or is away on a journey, shall still keep the Passover to YHWH.  ¹¹In the second month on the fourteenth day, at twilight, they shall keep it; they shall eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs.  ¹²They shall leave none of it until morning, nor break a bone of it; according to all the statute for the Passover they shall keep it.  ¹³But anyone who is clean and is not on a journey, and yet refrains from keeping the Passover, shall be cut off from the people for not presenting YHWH’S offering at its appointed time; such a one shall bear the consequences for the sin.  ¹⁴Any alien residing among you who wishes to keep the Passover to YHWH shall do so according to the statute of the Passover and according to its regulation; you shall have one statute for both the resident alien and the native.

 The move toward centralization in the P source material is quite evident.  The focus of the P material is upon the central Altar and its priestly service.  We clearly observe the development of the ritual from a simple slaughtering on the doorstep to a national celebration at the authorized Altar performed by the authorized priesthood.

 According to the older E material, the sacrifice of the Passover victim is connected with the consecration of the firstborn and the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which, as we have already seen, may have been a firstfruits festival in the north.  Clearly, the consecration of the firstborn is directly connected to the celebration of the Pesach/Chag HaMatzot.  We should be clear to understand that the “Passover” (Pesach) is the sacrificial victim, while Unleavened Bread (Matzot) is the actual “feast” or chag.  The practice of eating unleavened bread is linked by the text directly to the fact that the children ofIsrael leftEgypt quickly and did not have time to let the dough leaven or rise.

(Exodus 12:39 NRS) They baked unleavened cakes of the dough that they had brought out of Egypt; it was not leavened, because they were driven out of Egypt and could not wait, nor had they prepared any provisions for themselves.

 Additional instructions for the celebration are given in the books of Numbers and Deuteronomy.

 While we may draw all manner of metaphorical applications from the symbol of “leaven,” no such allusion is given in the Torah.  For the author(s) of the E source, the reason for eating unleavened bread is not a matter of “purity”; rather, it is directly associated with the hasty expulsion from Egypt.

 The E material also establishes that this celebration is to be conducted in the month when the barley is aviv or near ripe.  While the ancient pastoral and agricultural rituals that preceded the establishment of the Pesach/Chag HaMatzot celebrations may have been connected to the vernal equinox, no mention of such a requirement is given in the biblical text.

 While the P source material was written at a time when literacy (the ability to read and write) was spreading in Israel, the older E material was largely developed as oral traditions.  The origins of the E material in the preliterate oral/aural culture of Israel’s past can be seen in the emphasis placed upon passing the “story” of the Passover and exodus to the next generation.  Three times in the E source material we observe references to “telling” the story to the next generation.  We also see two references to keeping the story alive in one’s mind and mouth.

 (Exodus 12:26-27 NRS) And when your children ask you, What do you mean by this observance? ²⁷you shall say, It is the Passover sacrifice to YHWH, for He passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt, when He struck down the Egyptians but spared our houses.  And the people bowed down and worshipped.

 (Exodus 13:8 NRS) You shall tell your child on that day, It is because of what YHWH did for me when I came out of Egypt.

 (Exodus 13:14-15 NRS) When in the future your child asks you, What does this mean? you shall answer, By strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery.  ¹⁵When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, YHWH killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals.  Therefore I sacrifice to YHWH every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.

 (Exodus 13:9 NRS) It shall serve for you as a sign on your hand and as a reminder on your forehead, so that the teaching of YHWH may be on your lips; for with a strong hand YHWH brought you out of Egypt.

 (Exodus 13:16 NRS) It shall serve as a sign on your hand and as an emblem on your forehead that by strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt.

 While the P source material is primarily concerned with the proper priestly ritual, the sacrifices, and the Altar service, the older E source material is primarily concerned with the preservation of the story of the Passover and the exodus, which serves as the explanation and source of our motivation to keep the covenant.

 (Exodus 19:4-6 NRS) You have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to Myself.  ⁵Now therefore, if you obey My voice and keep My covenant, you shall be My treasured possession out of all the peoples.  Indeed, the whole earth is Mine, ⁶but you shall be for Me a priestly kingdom and a holy nation.  These are the words that you shall speak to the Israelites.

 We also find additional instructions for the celebration of Pesach/Chag HaMatzot in Deuteronomy.

 (Deuteronomy 16:1-8 NRS) Observe the month of the aviv by keeping the Passover for YHWH your God, for in the month of the aviv YHWH your God brought you out of Egypt by night.  ²You shall offer the Passover sacrifice for YHWH your God, from the flock and the herd, at the place that YHWH will choose as a dwelling for His name.  ³You must not eat with it anything leavened.  For seven days you shall eat unleavened bread with it – the bread of affliction – because you came out of the land of Egypt in great haste, so that all the days of your life you may remember the day of your departure from the land of Egypt.  ⁴No leaven shall be seen with you in all your territory for seven days; and none of the meat of what you slaughter on the evening of the first day shall remain until morning.  ⁵You are not permitted to offer the Passover sacrifice within any of your towns that YHWH your God is giving you.  ⁶But at the place that YHWH your God will choose as a dwelling for His name, only there shall you offer the Passover sacrifice, in the evening at sunset, the time of day when you departed from Egypt.  ⁷You shall cook it and eat it at the place that YHWH your God will choose; the next morning you may go back to your tents.  ⁸For six days you shall continue to eat unleavened bread, and on the seventh day there shall be a solemn assembly for YHWH your God, when you shall do no work.

 The D (Deuteronomic) source material was most likely written in the time of King Josiah (ca. 641-609 B.C.E.).  Like his ancestor King Hezekiah, Josiah instituted numerous religious reforms.  It was during the time of Josiah that the scroll of Moses was found.

 (2 Kings 22:10-11 NRS) Shaphan the secretary informed the king, The priest Hilkiah has given me a book.  Shaphan then read it aloud to the king.  ¹¹When the king heard the words of the book of the Torah, he tore his clothes.

 It is from this reading that Josiah renewed the efforts to centralize the cultic practices ofIsrael.  Like Hezekiah, Josiah closed down all the rural altars, restored the Temple in Jerusalem, and reinstituted the Feasts of YHWH.  We are told that Josiah hosted a massive Passover/Chag HaMatzot festival inJerusalem.

 (2 Kings 23:21-23 NRS) The king commanded all the people, Keep the Passover to YHWH your God as prescribed in this book of the covenant.  ²²No such Passover had been kept since the days of the judges who judged Israel, or during all the days of the kings of Israel or of the kings of Judah; ²³but in the eighteenth year of King Josiah this Passover was kept to YHWH in Jerusalem.

 The later book of Chronicles describes Josiah’s feast in detail.

 (2 Chronicles 35:1-19 NRS) Josiah kept a Passover to YHWH in Jerusalem; they slaughtered the Passover lamb on the fourteenth day of the first month.  ²He appointed the priests to their offices and encouraged them in the service of the house of YHWH.  ³He said to the Levites who taught all Israel and who were holy to YHWH, Put the holy ark in the house that Solomon son of David, king of Israel, built; you need no longer carry it on your shoulders.  Now serve YHWH your God and His people Israel.  ⁴Make preparations by your ancestral houses by your divisions, following the written directions of King David of Israel and the written directions of his son Solomon.  ⁵Take position in the holy place according to the groupings of the ancestral houses of your kindred the people, and let there be Levites for each division of an ancestral house.  ⁶Slaughter the Passover lamb, sanctify yourselves, and on behalf of your kindred make preparations, acting according to the word of YHWH by Moses.  ⁷Then Josiah contributed to the people, as Passover offerings for all that were present, lambs and kids from the flock to the number of thirty thousand, and three thousand bulls; these were from the king’s possessions.  ⁸His officials contributed willingly to the people, to the priests, and to the Levites.  Hilkiah, Zechariah, and Jehiel, the chief officers of the house of God, gave to the priests for the Passover offerings two thousand six hundred lambs and kids and three hundred bulls.  ⁹Conaniah also, and his brothers Shemaiah and Nethanel, and Hashabiah and Jeiel and Jozabad, the chiefs of the Levites, gave to the Levites for the Passover offerings five thousand lambs and kids and five hundred bulls.  ¹⁰When the service had been prepared for, the priests stood in their place, and the Levites in their divisions according to the king’s command.  ¹¹They slaughtered the Passover lamb, and the priests dashed the blood that they received from them, while the Levites did the skinning.  ¹²They set aside the burnt offerings so that they might distribute them according to the groupings of the ancestral houses of the people, to offer to YHWH, as it is written in the book of Moses.  And they did the same with the bulls.  ¹³They roasted the Passover lamb with fire according to the ordinance; and they boiled the holy offerings in pots, in caldrons, and in pans, and carried them quickly to all the people.  ¹⁴Afterward they made preparations for themselves and for the priests, because the priests the descendants of Aaron were occupied in offering the burnt offerings and the fat parts until night; so the Levites made preparations for themselves and for the priests, the descendants of Aaron.  ¹⁵The singers, the descendants of Asaph, were in their place according to the command of David, and Asaph, and Heman, and the king’s seer Jeduthun.  The gatekeepers were at each gate; they did not need to interrupt their service, for their kindred the Levites made preparations for them.  ¹⁶So all the service of YHWH was prepared that day, to keep the Passover and to offer burnt offerings on the altar of YHWH, according to the command of King Josiah.  ¹⁷The people of Israel who were present kept the Passover at that time, and the festival of unleavened bread seven days.  ¹⁸No Passover like it had been kept in Israel since the days of the prophet Samuel; none of the kings of Israel had kept such a Passover as was kept by Josiah, by the priests and the Levites, by all Judah and Israel who were present, and by the inhabitants of Jerusalem.  ¹⁹In the eighteenth year of the reign of Josiah this Passover was kept.

 The Deuteronomic historian who wrote 2 Kings declares that no Passover had been celebrated from the time of the Judges.  We may assume that he is referring to Joshua 5:7-10, which is the only Passover mentioned during this time until King Josiah.  However, the author of 2 Chronicles contradicts this statement and describes an effort by King Hezekiah to celebrate Passover in his day.  Unfortunately, the priesthood was defiled, and the feast had to be kept in the second month.

 (2 Chronicles 30:1-27 NRS) Hezekiah sent word to all Israel and Judah, and wrote letters also to Ephraim and Manasseh, that they should come to the house of YHWH at Jerusalem, to keep the Passover to YHWH the God of Israel.  ²For the king and his officials and all the assembly in Jerusalem had taken counsel to keep the Passover in the second month ³(for they could not keep it at its proper time because the priests had not sanctified themselves in sufficient number, nor had the people assembled in Jerusalem).  ⁴The plan seemed right to the king and all the assembly.  ⁵So they decreed to make a proclamation throughout all Israel, from Beer-sheba to Dan, that the people should come and keep the Passover to YHWH the God of Israel, at Jerusalem; for they had not kept it in great numbers as prescribed.  ⁶So couriers went throughout all Israel and Judah with letters from the king and his officials, as the king had commanded, saying, O people of Israel, return to YHWH, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Israel, so that He may turn again to the remnant of you who have escaped from the hand of the kings of Assyria.  ⁷Do not be like your ancestors and your kindred, who were faithless to YHWH God of their ancestors, so that He made them a desolation, as you see.  ⁸Do not now be stiff-necked as your ancestors were, but yield yourselves to YHWH and come to His sanctuary, which He has sanctified forever, and serve YHWH your God, so that His fierce anger may turn away from you.  ⁹For as you return to YHWH, your kindred and your children will find compassion with their captors, and return to this land.  For YHWH your God is gracious and merciful, and will not turn away His face from you, if you return to Him.  ¹⁰So the couriers went from city to city through the country of Ephraim and Manasseh, and as far as Zebulun; but they laughed them to scorn, and mocked them.  ¹¹Only a few from Asher, Manasseh, and Zebulun humbled themselves and came to Jerusalem.  ¹²The hand of God was also on Judah to give them one heart to do what the king and the officials commanded by the word of YHWH.  ¹³Many people came together in Jerusalem to keep the festival of unleavened bread in the second month, a very large assembly.  ¹⁴They set to work and removed the altars that were in Jerusalem, and all the altars for offering incense they took away and threw into the Wadi Kidron.  ¹⁵They slaughtered the Passover lamb on the fourteenth day of the second month.  The priests and the Levites were ashamed, and they sanctified themselves and brought burnt offerings into the house of YHWH.  ¹⁶They took their accustomed posts according to the law of Moses the man of God; the priests dashed the blood that they received from the hands of the Levites.  ¹⁷For there were many in the assembly who had not sanctified themselves; therefore the Levites had to slaughter the Passover lamb for everyone who was not clean, to make it holy to YHWH.  ¹⁸For a multitude of the people, many of them from Ephraim, Manasseh, Issachar, and Zebulun, had not cleansed themselves, yet they ate the Passover otherwise than as prescribed.  But Hezekiah prayed for them, saying, Good YHWH pardon all who set their hearts to seek God, YHWH the God of their ancestors, even though not in accordance with the sanctuary’s rules of cleanness.  ²⁰YHWH heard Hezekiah, and healed the people.  ²¹The people of Israel who were present at Jerusalem kept the festival of unleavened bread seven days with great gladness; and the Levites and the priests praised YHWH day by day, accompanied by loud instruments for YHWH.  ²²Hezekiah spoke encouragingly to all the Levites who showed good skill in the service of YHWH.  So the people ate the food of the festival for seven days, sacrificing offerings of well-being and giving thanks to YHWH the God of their ancestors.  ²³Then the whole assembly agreed together to keep the festival for another seven days; so they kept it for another seven days with gladness.  ²⁴For King Hezekiah of Judah gave the assembly a thousand bulls and seven thousand sheep for offerings, and the officials gave the assembly a thousand bulls and ten thousand sheep.  The priests sanctified themselves in great numbers.  ²⁵The whole assembly of Judah, the priests and the Levites, and the whole assembly that came out of Israel, and the resident aliens who came out of the land of Israel, and the resident aliens who lived in Judah, rejoiced.  ²⁶There was great joy in Jerusalem, for since the time of Solomon son of King David of Israel there had been nothing like this in Jerusalem.  ²⁷Then the priests and the Levites stood up and blessed the people, and their voice was heard; their prayer came to His holy dwelling in heaven.

 We should note the major transition to centralization.  In the book of Deuteronomy, a distinction is made between secular and sacred meats.  Secular meat may be slaughtered apart from the Altar, and the blood is poured upon the ground.  Sacred meat must be slaughtered at the Temple, and the blood is placed upon the Altar.

 (Deuteronomy 12:15-16 NRS) Yet whenever you desire you may slaughter and eat meat within any of your towns, according to the blessing that YHWH your God has given you; the unclean and the clean may eat of it, as they would of gazelle or deer.  ¹⁶The blood, however, you must not eat; you shall pour it out on the ground like water.

 (Deuteronomy 12:20-25 NRS) When YHWH your God enlarges your territory, as He has promised you, and you say, I am going to eat some meat, because you wish to eat meat, you may eat meat whenever you have the desire.  ²¹If the place where YHWH your God will choose to put His name is too far from you, and you slaughter as I have commanded you any of your herd or flock that YHWH has given you, then you may eat within your towns whenever you desire.  ²²Indeed, just as gazelle or deer is eaten, so you may eat it; the unclean and the clean alike may eat it.  ²³Only be sure that you do not eat the blood; for the blood is the life, and you shall not eat the life with the meat.  ²⁴Do not eat it; you shall pour it out on the ground like water.  ²⁵Do not eat it, so that all may go well with you and your children after you, because you do what is right in the sight of YHWH.

 According to the Deuteronomist, the Pesach was considered sacred meat and could only be slaughtered in the place where YHWH placed His name (implying the centralTempleand its Altar).

 (Deuteronomy 16:1-8 NRS) Observe the month of the aviv by keeping the Passover for YHWH your God, for in the month of the aviv YHWH your God brought you out of Egypt by night.  ²You shall offer the Passover sacrifice for YHWH your God, from the flock and the herd, at the place that YHWH will choose as a dwelling for His name.  ³You must not eat with it anything leavened.  For seven days you shall eat unleavened bread with it – the bread of affliction – because you came out of the land of Egypt in great haste, so that all the days of your life you may remember the day of your departure from the land of Egypt.  ⁴No leaven shall be seen with you in all your territory for seven days; and none of the meat of what you slaughter on the evening of the first day shall remain until morning.  ⁵You are not permitted to offer the Passover sacrifice within any of your towns that YHWH your God is giving you.  ⁶But at the place that YHWH your God will choose as a dwelling for His name, only there shall you offer the Passover sacrifice, in the evening at sunset, the time of day when you departed from Egypt.  ⁷You shall cook it and eat it at the place that YHWH your God will choose; the next morning you may go back to your tents.  ⁸For six days you shall continue to eat unleavened bread, and on the seventh day there shall be a solemn assembly for YHWH your God, when you shall do no work.

 The prohibition against slaughtering the Pesach away from the central Altar clearly prevents us from fulfilling the commandment to keep the Passover today.

 There are two more Passovers mentioned in the Tanakh.  After the return from the Babylonian exile,Israelwas called to rebuild theTemple.  A remnant ofIsraelreturned, completed the work, rededicated theTemple(ca. 516 B.C.E.), and celebrated Pesach/Chag HaMatzot.

 (Ezra 6:19-22 NRS) On the fourteenth day of the first month the returned exiles kept the Passover.  ²⁰For both the priests and the Levites had purified themselves; all of them were clean.  So they killed the Passover lamb for all the returned exiles, for their fellow priests, and for themselves.  ²¹It was eaten by the people of Israel who had returned from exile, and also by all who had joined them and separated themselves from the pollutions of the nations of the land to worship YHWH, the God of Israel.  ²²With joy they celebrated the festival of unleavened bread seven days; for YHWH had made them joyful, and had turned the heart of the king of Assyria to them, so that he aided them in the work on the house of God, the God of Israel.

 Even after the return from exile, we note that the celebration is largely focused upon the central Altar and priestly service.  There is no biblical account of the Passover being celebrated in exile.  Without the central Altar, the Pesach slaughtering is prohibited.  The absence of the Pesach victim shifts the emphasis back to the older focus of telling the story through words and traditions.  Without the functioning Altar and priesthood, it is possible for us to sight the new moon, examine the barley, remember the events, share the story with our children, clean the leaven out of our homes, abstain from eating se’or or chametz for seven days, and keep the first and last days of unleavened bread as sacred time for rehearsing the story and giving thanks to YHWH for the great redemption and deliverance we have enjoyed.  By not slaughtering the Pesach, we keep the Torah, which forbids us from doing so apart from the central Altar.  By doing what we are able to do, we keep our heritage alive, remain in rhythm with YHWH, and establish our identity as the people YHWH redeemed and brought out of bondage in Egypt.

OUTLINE:

• Exodus 12:1-2 The calendar
• Exodus 12:3-5 The selection of the victim
• Exodus 12:6-7 The slaughtering of the victim
• Exodus 12:8-11 The Passover meal
• Exodus 12:12-13 YHWH’S actions on the Passover
• Exodus 12:14-20 Instructions for the Feast of Unleavened Bread
• Exodus 12:21-23 Instructions for the application of the blood
• Exodus 12:24-27 The command to celebrate Passover
• Exodus 12:28-29 The events of Passover
• Exodus 12:30-39 The people of Israel are expelled from Egypt
• Exodus 12:40-42 The concluding formula of events
• Exodus 12:43-50 Further instructions for the celebration of the events
• Exodus 12:51 The exodus
• Exodus 13:1-2 Instructions concerning the firstborn
• Exodus 13:3-10 Instructions concerning the Feast of Unleavened Bread
• Exodus 13:11-16 Instructions concerning the firstborn

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. Was Israel a literate or nonliterate culture?
2. What were the two primary means of preserving and transmitting history?
3. As what may rituals be regarded?
4. How many accounts of the Passover are present in the book of Exodus?
5. How do the P and E sources differ?
6. What does apotropaic mean?
7. How does Israel’s ancient past shape the events of Passover?
8. What is Israel called to do?
9. What is the meaning of the Hebrew word ’ot?
10. Why do the plagues come on Pharaoh but not onIsrael?

TEACHING:

As I write this teaching, I am sitting in my study surrounded by a veritable library of books on archaeology, epigraphy, linguistics, anthropology, ancient cultures and customs, commentaries, and, of course, Bibles in various languages and translations.  The preparation for writing this teaching began around 1962, when my parents and grandparents bought me books (including my first Bible) and began reading to me.  At the age of five I was in the public school system learning to identify letters and recite the alphabet.  By age six I was in the First Grade and began learning how to read small words.  For twelve years I attended public school, learning how to master the art of reading and writing.  As a parent, I instructed my children, as well as others, in the essential skill set of reading and writing.

The inability to read and write is a crippling handicap in our modern, literate culture.  In literate cultures, writing is the primary means of recording, preserving, and transmitting the past.  Written documents serve as the repository of our heritage and our identity.  In literate societies, reading and writing are so valued that millions of dollars a year are spent to teach people how to read and write, yet it is ironic that reading and writing are often taken for granted by literate people.  So integrated is literacy into our daily lives that we often assume everyone is literate.  Since reading is so common and mundane, we often forget that the ability to read and write does not come naturally. Readingand writing are learned skills that require a great deal of effort.

Many people are shocked to discover that there are still many nonliterate cultures in existence today.  While literate cultures tend to assume that reading and writing have always existed, this is clearly not the case.  In ancient Israel, for example, literacy did not spread beyond the confines of the royal court until around the eighth through the sixth centuries B.C.E.  While there were various forms of writing, such as hieroglyphs, cuneiform, ideographs, and even some primitive alphabets, writing was largely limited to the business and administrative purposes of the royal court and was not practiced by the common people.

Prior to the spread of literacy in ancient Israel, much of its heritage and identity was preserved and transmitted orally from generation to generation.  Ancient Israel was predominantly an oral/aural culture until the monarchal period.  The descriptive title “oral/aural,” while accurately defining a nonliterate culture, may also be somewhat misleading.  While reading and writing are merely a minor influence in oral/aural cultures, this does not mean that speaking and listening are the “only” means of communication.  Rituals, symbols, customs, and practices are also means of preserving, transmitting, and communicating information, history, and identity from generation to generation.  In this regard, we may understand rituals to be “visible words” that communicate to those both participating in and observing them.  Understanding that Israel was an oral/aural culture that preserved and transmitted its history, culture, and identity through story and ritual is essential for understanding the Passover.

We should note that the story of Passover is communicated in the Torah in two distinct sets of instructions.  We should also note that these two sets of instructions appear in both the Priestly (P) source material and the Elohist (E) source material.  The first set of instructions addresses the ritual to be performed by the children of Israel in Egypt.  From the P source material, we read:

(Exodus 12:1-13 NRS) YHWH said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt: ²This month shall mark for you the beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year for you.  ³Tell the whole congregation of Israel that on the tenth of this month they are to take a lamb for each family, a lamb for each household.  ⁴If a household is too small for a whole lamb, it shall join its closest neighbor in obtaining one; the lamb shall be divided in proportion to the number of people who eat of it.  ⁵Your lamb shall be without blemish, a year-old male; you may take it from the sheep or from the goats.  ⁶You shall keep it until the fourteenth day of this month; then the whole assembled congregation of Israel shall slaughter it at twilight.  ⁷They shall take some of the blood and put it on the two doorposts and the lintel of the houses in which they eat it.  ⁸They shall eat the lamb that same night; they shall eat it roasted over the fire with unleavened bread and bitter herbs.  ⁹Do not eat any of it raw or boiled in water, but roasted over the fire, with its head, legs, and inner organs.  ¹⁰You shall let none of it remain until the morning; anything that remains until the morning you shall burn.  ¹¹This is how you shall eat it: your loins girded, your sandals on your feet, and your staff in your hand; and you shall eat it hurriedly.  It is the Passover of YHWH.  ¹²For I will pass through the land of Egypt that night, and I will strike down every firstborn in the land of Egypt, both human beings and animals; on all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgments: I am YHWH.  ¹³The blood shall be a sign for you on the houses where you live: when I see the blood, I will pass over you, and no plague shall destroy you when I strike the land of Egypt.

From the E source material, we receive the following instructions:

(Exodus 12:21-23 NRS) Then Moses called all the elders of Israel and said to them, Go, select lambs for your families, and slaughter the Passover lamb.  ²²Take a bunch of hyssop, dip it in the blood that is in the basin, and touch the lintel and the two doorposts with the blood in the basin.  None of you shall go outside the door of your house until morning.  ²³For YHWH will pass through to strike down the Egyptians; when He sees the blood on the lintel and on the two doorposts, YHWH will pass over that door and will not allow the destroyer to enter your houses to strike you down.

By separating, identifying, and comparing these two individual lines of tradition, we see that the older E source material is much simpler and far less developed or refined.  The P source material shows obvious signs of development and presents a much more detailed and refined ritual.  The P source material was written by priests in the time of King Hezekiah when the cultic practices of Israel were highly developed.  It should not surprise us that the Priestly presentation of the Passover ritual is detailed and refined, as well as consistent with later ritual celebrations.

The second set of Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread instructions presented involves the later celebration of the historical event.  The first instructions regarding the celebration of the historical event come from the P source.

(Exodus 12:14-20 NRS) This day shall be a day of remembrance for you.  You shall celebrate it as a festival to YHWH; throughout your generations you shall observe it as a perpetual ordinance.  ¹⁵Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread; on the first day you shall remove leaven from your houses, for whoever eats leavened bread from the first day until the seventh day shall be cut off from Israel.  ¹⁶On the first day you shall hold a solemn assembly, and on the seventh day a solemn assembly; no work shall be done on those days; only what everyone must eat, that alone may be prepared by you.  ¹⁷You shall observe the festival of unleavened bread, for on this very day I brought your companies out of the land of Egypt: you shall observe this day throughout your generations as a perpetual ordinance.  ¹⁸In the first month, from the evening of the fourteenth day until the evening of the twenty-first day, you shall eat unleavened bread.  ¹⁹For seven days no leaven shall be found in your houses; for whoever eats what is leavened shall be cut off from the congregation of Israel, whether an alien or a native of the land.  ²⁰You shall eat nothing leavened; in all your settlements you shall eat unleavened bread.

(Exodus 12:42-49 NRS) That was for YHWH a night of vigil, to bring them out of the land of Egypt.  That same night is a vigil to be kept for YHWH by all the Israelites throughout their generations.  ⁴³YHWH said to Moses and Aaron: This is the ordinance for the Passover: no foreigner shall eat of it, ⁴⁴but any slave who has been purchased may eat of it after he has been circumcised; ⁴⁵no bound or hired servant may eat of it.  ⁴⁶It shall be eaten in one house; you shall not take any of the animal outside the house, and you shall not break any of its bones.  ⁴⁷The whole congregation of Israel shall celebrate it.  ⁴⁸If an alien who resides with you wants to celebrate the Passover to YHWH, all his males shall be circumcised; then he may draw near to celebrate it; he shall be regarded as a native of the land.  But no uncircumcised person shall eat of it; ⁴⁹there shall be one law for the native and for the alien who resides among you.

The E source material gives the following instructions for celebrating the historical event:

(Exodus 12:24-27 NRS) You shall observe this rite as a perpetual ordinance for you and your children.  ²⁵When you come to the land that YHWH will give you, as He has promised, you shall keep this observance.  ²⁶And when your children ask you, What do you mean by this observance? ²⁷you shall say, It is the Passover sacrifice to YHWH, for He passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt, when He struck down the Egyptians but spared our houses.  And the people bowed down and worshipped.

(Exodus 13:1-16 NRS) YHWH said to Moses: ²Consecrate to Me all the firstborn; whatever is the first to open the womb among the Israelites, of human beings and animals, is Mine.  ³Moses said to the people, Remember this day on which you came out of Egypt, out of the house of slavery, because YHWH brought you out from there by strength of hand; no leavened bread shall be eaten.  ⁴Today, in the month of the aviv, you are going out.  ⁵When YHWH brings you into the land of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites, which He swore to your ancestors to give you, a land flowing with milk and honey, you shall keep this observance in this month.  ⁶Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread, and on the seventh day there shall be a festival to YHWH.  ⁷Unleavened bread shall be eaten for seven days; no leavened bread shall be seen in your possession, and no leaven shall be seen among you in all your territory.  ⁸You shall tell your child on that day, It is because of what YHWH did for me when I came out of Egypt.  ⁹It shall serve for you as a sign on your hand and as a reminder on your forehead, so that the teaching of YHWH may be on your lips; for with a strong hand YHWH brought you out of Egypt.  ¹⁰You shall keep this ordinance at its proper time from year to year.  ¹¹When YHWH has brought you into the land of the Canaanites, as He swore to you and your ancestors, and has given it to you, ¹²you shall set apart to YHWH all that first opens the womb.  All the firstborn of your livestock that are males shall be YHWH’S.  ¹³But every firstborn donkey you shall redeem with a sheep; if you do not redeem it, you must break its neck.  Every firstborn male among your children you shall redeem.  ¹⁴When in the future your child asks you, What does this mean? you shall answer, By strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery.  ¹⁵When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, YHWH killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals.  Therefore I sacrifice to YHWH every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.  ¹⁶It shall serve as a sign on your hand and as an emblem on your forehead that by strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt.

For this study, we will limit our focus to the first set of instructions regarding the actual historical events in Egypt.  Of particular interest to this study is discovering the purpose and meaning of the slaughtering of the lamb and the placing of its blood on the doorposts of the house.  If these rituals were understood as visible words, then we must question what God was trying to communicate to our ancestors, as well as what they understood these ritual actions to mean.  Was the Passover ritual a completely new institution, or is it possible that this ritual had its roots in Israel’s ancient nomadic/pastoral past?

According to the testimony of the Torah, the Israelites who settled inEgyptwere a nomadic/ pastoral people.

(Genesis 12:15-16 NRS) When the officials of Pharaoh saw her, they praised her to Pharaoh.  And the woman was taken into Pharaoh’s house.  ¹⁶And for her sake he dealt well with Abram; and he had sheep, oxen, male donkeys, male and female slaves, female donkeys, and camels.

(Genesis 13:2 NRS) Now Abram was very rich in livestock, in silver, and in gold.

(Genesis 13:5-7 NRS) Now Lot, who went with Abram, also had flocks and herds and tents, ⁶so that the land could not support both of them living together; for their possessions were so great that they could not live together, ⁷and there was strife between the herders of Abram’s livestock and the herders of Lot’s livestock.  At that time the Canaanites and the Perizzites lived in the land.

(Genesis 24:34-36 NRS) So he said, I am Abraham’s servant.  ³⁵YHWH has greatly blessed my master, and he has become wealthy; He has given him flocks and herds, silver and gold, male and female slaves, camels and donkeys.  ³⁶And Sarah my master’s wife bore a son to my master when she was old; and he has given him all that he has.

(Genesis 32:3-5 NRS) Jacob sent messengers before him to his brother Esau in the land of Seir, the country of Edom, ⁴instructing them, Thus you shall say to my lord Esau: Thus says your servant Jacob, I have lived with Laban as an alien, and stayed until now; ⁵and I have oxen, donkeys, flocks, male and female slaves; and I have sent to tell my lord, in order that I may find favor in your sight.

(Genesis 33:13 NRS) But Jacob said to him, My lord knows that the children are frail and that the flocks and herds, which are nursing, are a care to me; and if they are overdriven for one day, all the flocks will die.

(Genesis 37:16 NRS) I am seeking my brothers, he said; tell me, please, where they are pasturing the flock.

We should also note that even inEgypt, our ancestors served as shepherds.

(Genesis 45:10 NRS) You shall settle in the land of Goshen, and you shall be near me, you and your children and your children’s children, as well as your flocks, your herds, and all that you have.

(Genesis 46:31-34 NRS) Joseph said to his brothers and to his father’s household, I will go up and tell Pharaoh, and will say to him, My brothers and my father’s household, who were in the land of Canaan, have come to me.  ³²The men are shepherds, for they have been keepers of livestock; and they have brought their flocks, and their herds, and all that they have.  ³³When Pharaoh calls you, and says, What is your occupation? ³⁴you shall say, Your servants have been keepers of livestock from our youth even until now, both we and our ancestors – in order that you may settle in the land of Goshen, because all shepherds are abhorrent to the Egyptians.

(Genesis 47:1-4 NRS) So Joseph went and told Pharaoh, My father and my brothers, with their flocks and herds and all that they possess, have come from the land of Canaan; they are now in the land of Goshen.  ²From among his brothers he took five men and presented them to Pharaoh.  ³Pharaoh said to his brothers, What is your occupation?  And they said to Pharaoh, Your servants are shepherds, as our ancestors were.  ⁴They said to Pharaoh, We have come to reside as aliens in the land; for there is no pasture for your servants’ flocks because the famine is severe in the land of Canaan.  Now, we ask you, let your servants settle in the land of Goshen.

(Genesis 50:7-8 NRS) So Joseph went up to bury his father.  With him went up all the servants of Pharaoh, the elders of his household, and all the elders of the land of Egypt, ⁸as well as all the household of Joseph, his brothers, and his father’s household.  Only their children, their flocks, and their herds were left in the land of Goshen.

Several different scholars have suggested that the Passover slaughtering and blood ritual have their roots in the rituals of ancient nomads and pastoralists.  Both R. De Vaux and H.J. Kraus saw connections between the Passover and a nomadic Arab nocturnal spring festival that preceded the seasonal migration.  This festival usually took place around the time of the full moon after the vernal equinox and was performed without the necessity of priests or altars.  The purpose of this festival was apotropaic[2] in nature and was meant to protect the people and flocks from evil or demonic threats during the journey from one pastureland to the next.[3]  G. Beer sees a broader base for the origin of the complex ritual of Passover.

According to G. Beer, Passover originally consisted of three separate springtime festivals.  One was a nocturnal firstling sacrifice held at full moon, which was part of the Israelite nomadic heritage.  After the settlement in Canaan, it was performed only by the people of Judah.  In contrast to the majority of scholars who posit that the family dwelling was the place of its observance, Beer holds that it was held in local sanctuaries as an introductory rite for the harvest season.  The sacrificial animal had divine properties.  It was consumed with unleavened bread because leaven was regarded as ritually impure.  At some stage in commemoration of the tenth plague, a smearing of blood was introduced into the original pattern.  The innovation changed the place of its observance.[4]

In the time of Josiah, this firstling sacrifice achieved a status of national ceremony; its observance was limited to the central shrine in Jerusalem; the sacrificial animal did not have to be a firstling anymore; the rite of the blood smearing was abandoned; the ritual was no longer held as a commemoration of the tenth plague, but of the exodus.  The flesh was now boiled instead of roasted.[5]

The people in the northern kingdom had their own version of a vernal nocturnal festival, held at the full moon.  It was the Feast of Unleavened Bread, observed before the spring harvest.  According to Beer, the feast may have lasted either one or seven days.  The third feast, also held in the spring, was the offering of the first sheaf of barley and was held at the local shrines.[6]

The merging between the southern Passover and the northern Feast of Unleavened Bread came as a consequence of the religious reform of Ezekiel.[7]

Julius Wellhausen likewise sees the root of the Passover in these early nomadic/pastoral rituals and seeks to demonstrate this through the biblical narrative itself.  Wellhausen writes:

In point of fact, the Pesach points back to the sacrifice of the firstlings (Exo. xxxiv, 18 seq., xii, 12 seq.; Deut xv, 14 seq., xvi, 1 seq.), and it is principally upon this that the historical character of the whole festivity hinges.  It is because Jehovah smote the firstborn of Egypt and spared those of Israel that the later firstborn thence forward are held sacred to him.[8]

Because Pharaoh refuses to allow the Hebrews to offer to their God the firstlings of cattle that are his due, Jehovah seizes from him the firstborn of men.  Thus the Exodus is not the occasion of the festival, but the festival of the occasion…

The only view sanctioned by the nature of the case is that the Israelite custom of offering the firstling gave rise to the narrative of the slaying of the firstborn of Egypt; unless the custom be presupposed, the story is inexplicable, and the peculiar selection of its victims by the plague is left without a motive.[9]

We see evidence of the antiquity of the Feast of Firstfruits and Feast of the Firstborn in the older J (Yawhist) source narrative of Cain and Abel.

(Genesis 4:4-5 NRS) And Abel for his part brought of the firstlings of his flock, their fat portions.  And YHWH had regard for Abel and his offering, ⁵but for Cain and his offering He had no regard.  So Cain was very angry, and his countenance fell.

Wellhausen rightly points out that the tension within the plot stems from Pharaoh’s refusal to let Israel travel three days’ journey into the wilderness to make an appropriate offering to YHWH.

(Exodus 7:16 NRS) Say to him, YHWH, the God of the Hebrews, sent me to you to say, Let My people go, so that they may worship Me in the wilderness.  But until now you have not listened.

(Exodus 8:1 NRS) Then YHWH said to Moses, Go to Pharaoh and say to him, Thus says YHWH: Let My people go, so that they may worship Me.

(Exodus 8:8 NRS) Then Pharaoh called Moses and Aaron, and said, Pray to YHWH to take away the frogs from me and my people, and I will let the people go to sacrifice to YHWH.

(Exodus 8:20 NRS) Then YHWH said to Moses, Rise early in the morning and present yourself before Pharaoh, as he goes out to the water, and say to him, Thus says YHWH: Let My people go, so that they may worship Me.

(Exodus 8:25 NRS) Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron, and said, Go, sacrifice to your God within the land.

(Exodus 9:1 NRS) Then YHWH said to Moses, Go to Pharaoh, and say to him, Thus says YHWH, the God of the Hebrews: Let My people go, so that they may worship Me.

(Exodus 9:13 NRS) Then YHWH said to Moses, Rise up early in the morning and present yourself before Pharaoh, and say to him, Thus says YHWH, the God of the Hebrews: Let My people go, so that they may worship Me.

(Exodus 10:3 NRS) So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh, and said to him, Thus says YHWH, the God of the Hebrews, How long will you refuse to humble yourself before Me?  Let My people go, so that they may worship Me.

(Exodus 10:7 NRS) Pharaoh’s officials said to him, How long shall this fellow be a snare to us?  Let the people go, so that they may worship YHWH their God; do you not yet understand that Egypt is ruined?

(Exodus 10:8-11 NRS) So Moses and Aaron were brought back to Pharaoh, and he said to them, Go, worship YHWH your God!  But which ones are to go?  ⁹Moses said, We will go with our young and our old; we will go with our sons and daughters and with our flocks and herds, because we have YHWH’S festival to celebrate.  ¹⁰He said to them, YHWH indeed will be with you, if ever I let your little ones go with you!  Plainly, you have some evil purpose in mind.  ¹¹No, never!  Your men may go and worship YHWH, for that is what you are asking.  And they were driven out from Pharaoh’s presence.

(Exodus 10:24-26 NRS) Then Pharaoh summoned Moses, and said, Go, worship YHWH.  Only your flocks and your herds shall remain behind.  Even your children may go with you.  ²⁵But Moses said, You must also let us have sacrifices and burnt offerings to sacrifice to YHWH our God.  ²⁶Our livestock also must go with us; not a hoof shall be left behind, for we must choose some of them for the worship of YHWH our God, and we will not know what to use to worship YHWH until we arrive there.

The Torah does not explicitly tell us what offering or sacrifice Israel was to make, nor does the Torah reveal the reason for Israel to leave Egypt in order to make the sacrifice to YHWH.  The Torah may give subtle hints as to the reason for making the sacrifice outside ofEgypt.

(Genesis 46:31-34 NRS) Joseph said to his brothers and to his father’s household, I will go up and tell Pharaoh, and will say to him, My brothers and my father’s household, who were in the land of Canaan, have come to me.  ³²The men are shepherds, for they have been keepers of livestock; and they have brought their flocks, and their herds, and all that they have.  ³³When Pharaoh calls you, and says, What is your occupation? ³⁴you shall say, Your servants have been keepers of livestock from our youth even until now, both we and our ancestors – in order that you may settle in the land of Goshen, because all shepherds are abhorrent (to’evah) to the Egyptians.

(Exodus 8:25-28 NRS) Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron, and said, Go, sacrifice to your God within the land.  ²⁶But Moses said, It would not be right to do so; for the sacrifices that we offer to YHWH our God are offensive (to’evah) to the Egyptians.  If we offer in the sight of the Egyptians sacrifices that are offensive (to’evah) to them, will they not stone us?  ²⁷We must go a three days’ journey into the wilderness and sacrifice to YHWH our God as He commands us.  ²⁸So Pharaoh said, I will let you go to sacrifice to YHWH your God in the wilderness, provided you do not go very far away.  Pray for me.

Concerning this offense, Nahum M. Sarna points out that the Torah uses the ambiguous term to’evah (tav, vav cholam, ayin, vet, hey), which may mean “that which is taboo,” implying it is taboo for the Egyptians.  It may also be read as “that which is an [Egyptian] abomination,” in reference to Egypt’s animal deities.[10]  If to’evah is referring to some taboo of the Egyptians, then the need for Israel to leave Egypt to perform the prescribed sacrifice was motivated by the fear of offending the Egyptians.  If the term to’evah is referring to the abomination of the Egyptian deities, then we should understand the need to leave Egypt to perform the sacrifice based upon the defiled nature of the land of Egypt.  The altars of Egypt were no place to sacrifice to YHWH.  Such an understanding of the word to’evah helps to explain Moses’ rejection of Pharaoh’s offer to Israel to worship in the land.

Regardless of which way the Torah intends the verse to be read, there is concern for the well-being of the Israelites due to the nature of the sacrifices.  The concerns for the offense of the Egyptians and for the safety of the Israelites provide the basis for Israel’s request to leaveEgypt.

If, as scholars have suggested, the spring festival of the firstborn was, in fact, an apotropaic ritual that was understood to protect from adversity, then the whole of the conflict in Egypt begins to take on logical significance.  If Israel was charged with conducting the yearly apotropaic ritual, and Pharaoh refused to allow this protective ritual to take place, then it would be expected that evil in the form of plagues would fall upon Pharaoh and his people, touching their water, their crops, their animals, their people, and, ultimately, their firstborn.

From the testimony of the Torah, we observe that it was generally the patriarch of the family who served as the family priest, building altars and offering sacrifices.  We should also note that the firstborn was generally considered the patriarch of the family.  Some may argue that Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph were not the firstborn, but in each of these unique cases the biological or chronological firstborn was disqualified in some fashion from possessing the honor.  The firstborn was understood to be the beginning of a family’s strength and, therefore, was often understood as sacred or set apart.  It was for this reason among ancient cultures that the firstfruits and the firstborn were consecrated to YHWH.

(Exodus 13:2 NRS) Consecrate to Me all the firstborn; whatever is the first to open the womb among the Israelites, of human beings and animals, is Mine.

(Exodus 13:11-13 NRS) When YHWH has brought you into the land of the Canaanites, as He swore to you and your ancestors, and has given it to you, ¹²you shall set apart to YHWH all that first opens the womb.  All the firstborn of your livestock that are males shall be YHWH’S.  ¹³But every firstborn donkey you shall redeem with a sheep; if you do not redeem it, you must break its neck.  Every firstborn male among your children you shall redeem.

(Exodus 22:29 NRS) You shall not delay to make offerings from the fullness of your harvest and from the outflow of your presses.  The firstborn of your sons you shall give to Me.

(Exodus 34:19-20 NRS) All that first opens the womb is Mine, all your male livestock, the firstborn of cow and sheep.  ²⁰The firstborn of a donkey you shall redeem with a lamb, or if you will not redeem it you shall break its neck.  All the firstborn of your sons you shall redeem.  No one shall appear before Me empty-handed.

(Numbers 3:12-13 NRS) I hereby accept the Levites from among the Israelites as substitutes for all the firstborn that open the womb among the Israelites.  The Levites shall be Mine, ¹³for all the firstborn are Mine; when I killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, I consecrated for My own all the firstborn in Israel, both human and animal; they shall be Mine.  I am YHWH.

In the biblical narrative of the exodus from Egypt, Israel is referred to as YHWH’S firstborn son.

(Exodus 4:22-23 NRS) Then you shall say to Pharaoh, Thus says YHWH: Israel is My firstborn son.  ²³I said to you, Let My son go that he may worship Me.  But you refused to let him go; now I will kill your firstborn son.

Placed in the context of the apotropaic ritual of the firstborn, we may understand these verses to be a warning to Pharaoh that if the people of Israel (the firstborn) would not be allowed to fulfill their priestly function of performing the apotropaic ritual, then harm would befall all Egypt, especially the unredeemed firstborn of humans.  Since it was Pharaoh who prevented the appropriate and protective ritual from being performed, the harm would come upon his own firstborn.

While Israel sought repeatedly to faithfully obey the commandment of YHWH in a manner that would not be offensive to the Egyptians, Pharaoh repeatedly prevented the protective ritual from being performed.  Israel repeatedly requested permission to go and perform the protective sacrifice.  With each rejection, more and greater destruction fell upon Pharaoh and the people of Egypt, who, like Cain, refused to acknowledge YHWH’S sovereignty and do what was right.

(Genesis 4:6-7 NRS) YHWH said to Cain, Why are you angry, and why has your countenance fallen?  ⁷If you do well, will you not be accepted?  And if you do not do well, sin is lurking at the door; its desire is for you, but you must master it.

(Exodus 9:14 NRS) For this time I will send all My plagues upon you yourself, and upon your officials, and upon your people, so that you may know that there is no one like Me in all the earth.

(Exodus 10:3 NRS) So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh, and said to him, Thus says YHWH, the God of the Hebrews, How long will you refuse to humble yourself before Me?  Let My people go, so that they may worship Me.

(Exodus 10:7 NRS) Pharaoh’s officials said to him, How long shall this fellow be a snare to us?  Let the people go, so that they may worship YHWH their God; do you not yet understand that Egypt is ruined?

With the total destruction of Egypt imminent, YHWH commanded that Israel perform the ceremony inEgypt.  The lambs were slaughtered and the blood was placed upon the doorframes of their homes.  The blood was clearly apotropaic in its function.  Disaster fell upon those who refused to acknowledge YHWH as sovereign.  The plagues and destruction of Egypt are clearly to be understood as the result of preventing Israel from performing its priestly function.  That this ritual was connected to the ritual of the firstborn is also evident in the biblical narrative.

(Exodus 11:5 NRS) Every firstborn in the land of Egypt shall die, from the firstborn of Pharaoh who sits on his throne to the firstborn of the female slave who is behind the handmill, and all the firstborn of the livestock.

(Exodus 12:12 NRS) For I will pass through the land of Egypt that night, and I will strike down every firstborn in the land of Egypt, both human beings and animals; on all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgments: I am YHWH.

(Exodus 13:15 NRS) When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, YHWH killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals.  Therefore I sacrifice to YHWH every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.

If the scholars are correct, then the death of the firstborn is precisely what Israel’s sacrifice in the wilderness was meant to prevent.  Further affirming Israel’s priestly function is the later calling of Israel at Mount Sinai to be a “priestly kingdom.”

(Exodus 19:5-6 NRS) Now therefore, if you obey My voice and keep My covenant, you shall be My treasured possession out of all the peoples.  Indeed, the whole earth is Mine, ⁶but you shall be for Me a priestly kingdom and a holy nation.  These are the words that you shall speak to the Israelites.

Many recent eisegetes refer to the Passover as a sin offering (specifically for intentional sin).  Such thinking, however, is derived from a desire to connect the events of the Passover with John’s declaration of Yeshua as “the lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world,”[11]  and not from the biblical text and its historical context.

The blood on the doorposts, we are told, was to serve as a “sign” or ’ot (aleph, vav cholam, tav) for the people of Israel.

(Exodus 12:13 NRS) The blood shall be a sign for you on the houses where you live: when I see the blood, I will pass over you, and no plague shall destroy you when I strike the land of Egypt.

The Hebrew word ’ot or “sign” is used in several different ways in the Scriptures.  A sign can impart knowledge or give direction, authenticate a calling or sending, serve as a reminder, prophetically or symbolically declare a truth, serve as an omen foretelling the future, be a trial or test, or serve to identify a person or property.  I believe that the blood of the paschal victim served as a sign of obedience on behalf of the people of Israel, as well as a sign of ownership or possession.  The blood identified those who had been redeemed by the blood of the lamb.  Let us recall that the firstborn of humans were to be redeemed by the blood of a lamb.

(Exodus 13:13 NRS) But every firstborn donkey you shall redeem with a sheep; if you do not redeem it, you must break its neck.  Every firstborn male among your children you shall redeem.

(Exodus 13:15 NRS) When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, YHWH killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals.  Therefore I sacrifice to YHWH every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.

Those who faithfully fulfilled the ritual slaughtering were redeemed and set apart to YHWH as the law of the firstborn demands.  Since all Israel is the firstborn of YHWH, then all Israel was redeemed by the blood of the lambs.  In this respect, Wellhausen is correct in saying that the feast (i.e., the Feast of the Firstborn) was the cause for the events of the exodus, not the exodus the cause for the Feast of the Firstborn.  If it is also true that this springtime Feast of the Firstborn was an ancient, nomadic/pastoral, apotropaic ritual made prior to moving the flocks and herds, then it makes perfect sense that YHWH would have the people of Israel perform this ritual prior to moving His flock (Israel) from depleted and defiled Egypt to a new pasture flowing with milk and honey.

OUTLINE:

• Leviticus 6:8-13           The ‘olah offering
• Leviticus 6:14-18         The minchah offering
• Leviticus 6:19-23         The ordination offering
• Leviticus 6:24-30         The chatta’t offering

• Leviticus 7:1-10           The ’asham offering
• Leviticus 7:11-18         The sh^elamim offering
• Leviticus 7:19-27         Prohibited meats
• Leviticus 7:28-30         No offerings by proxy
• Leviticus 7:31-36         The priestly portion
• Leviticus 7:37-38         Conclusion formula

• Leviticus 8:1-36           The rite of ordination

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. What are the two major ways of reading the Bible?
2. What two events lead to a literal reading of the Bible?
3. What is the definition of “idiom”?
4. Does YHWH accept human sacrifice?
5. Does the intent of the person offering the sacrifice matter?
6. Is the cross an altar?
7. Was Yeshua’s blood placed on the Altar?
8. How do we reconcile the language of the Apostolic Writings with the Torah?
9. Whose “sacrifice” was it?
10. How should we understand Yeshua’s life, ministry, and death?

TEACHING:

One of the most difficult challenges facing us as Jews who believe that Yeshua of Nazareth is the Messiah is understanding the significance and impact of his life, teachings, ministry, death, and resurrection.  This is especially difficult when we speak of Yeshua the Messiah in relationship to the sacrificial system of Israel’s worship.  A big part of this challenge stems from a tendency for many believers to “over-literalize” the Scriptures.  This tendency toward literal reading of biblical stories stems largely from ignorance.  Please understand that I do not mean this statement to be insulting.  Ignorance is simply a lack of knowledge.  When there is a “hole” in our knowledge, we all have a tendency to fill the gap with that which we already know.  When we are reading about a people and culture far removed from our own time and culture, we tend to understand their words and actions from our own modern perspective.  We understand the “literal” meaning of the words according to our culture but fail to understand the idiomatic[2] nuances and meanings of the words in their original ancient culture and context.  If we read the Scripture according to our modern understanding (or lack of understanding), we will surely draw a far different conclusion from the text than what the original author intended and the original audience understood.

Let us look at a brief example.  If we were to translate the following verse literally, we might not “naturally” understand its intent without first understanding the idiomatic use of the words.

(Exodus 32:22) And Aaron said, Do not let the nose (’aph – aleph, fey) of my lord burn hot; you know the people, that they are bent on evil.

The Hebrew word ’aph means “nose” or “nostril.”  The word “nose” came to be associated with “anger” because people’s noses tend to flair out and snort and possibly even flush or turn red and hot when they are angry.  Most translators, having researched the language, understood the connection and, therefore, replaced the word literally meaning “nose” with its figurative meaning, “anger.”

(Exodus 32:22 NRS) And Aaron said, Do not let the anger of my lord burn hot; you know the people, that they are bent on evil.

In his book Reading the Bible Again for the First Time: Taking the Bible Seriously But Not Literally, Marcus J. Borg addresses the influence of culture on how we understand the world around us and on how we read the Bible.  Borg writes:

We are aware of historical and cultural relativity.  In only slightly different words, we know about historical and cultural conditioning.  We are aware that how people think is pervasively shaped by the time and place in which they live, as well as by social and economic class.

This applies not only to people in earlier times and other places, but also to us.  Our concepts, images, language, knowledge, beliefs—even our thought processes themselves—are all profoundly shaped by culture.  They are all conditioned by and relative to the time and place in which they originated.[3]

This cultural conditioning shapes not only what is written in the Bible but also how we read the Bible.  Marcus J. Borg teaches that there are primarily two diverse approaches to reading the Bible: the Literal-Factual and the Historical-Metaphorical.[4]  The Literal-Factual approach to the Bible teaches that the Bible (i.e., the written text) is the infallible and inspired Word of God.  Every word within the biblical text itself, unless otherwise indicated, is to be understood literally.  Every fact is to be received as factually correct.  While this view may now be the dominant view among modern believers, it is a recent development.

It was largely the work of the Protestant Reformers and the invention of the printing press that made it possible for individual believers to read the Bible for themselves.  Prior to these events, the Bible (again, as written text) was available only to the literate elite who were capable of reading the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin manuscripts.  The written text of the Bible was primarily the domain of the scholar and educated priest.  While being able to read the Bible was indeed a positive blessing for the whole body of Messiah, it also gave birth to an infinite number of individual interpretations, which divided the body into an infinite number of sects.  It also made it possible for the undereducated and uninformed to form their individual translations and interpretations based in ignorance.  The lack of education in ancient languages, literature, cultures, customs, etc. led people to read the Bible in a literal manner.

The second major approach to the Scriptures is the Historical-Metaphorical approach.  The Historical-Metaphorical approach seeks to understand the sacred writings within the historical context in which they were originally written, read, and received.  Once understanding the original intent of the text (as much as is possible, given the great gap of time between the writing of the text and our reading it), possible applications of the text in our time and culture are sought.  This approach to the Scriptures recognizes the various genres of literature used in the Bible to transmit its truths.

I believe that a great deal of the difficulty we face in explaining the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Yeshua the Messiah as they connect to the teaching of the Torah is rooted in the Factual-Literal approach to the Scriptures.  This is especially prominent when we are discussing the sacrificial system as it relates to Yeshua.  Throughout the Apostolic Writings we see numerous references to Yeshua in “sacrificial terms.”

(John 1:29 NRS) The next day he saw Yeshua coming toward him and declared, Here is the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world!

(John 1:36 NRS) …and as he watched Yeshua walk by, he exclaimed, Look, here is the Lamb of God!

(Romans 3:25 NRS) …whom God put forward as a sacrifice of atonement by his blood, effective through faith.  He did this to show His righteousness, because in His divine forbearance He had passed over the sins previously committed.

(1 Corinthians 5:7 NRS) Clean out the old yeast so that you may be a new batch, as you really are unleavened.  For our paschal lamb, Messiah, has been sacrificed.

(Ephesians 1:7 NRS) In him we have redemption through his blood, the forgiveness of our trespasses, according to the riches of His grace.

(Ephesians 2:13 NRS) But now in Messiah Yeshua you who once were far off have been brought near by the blood of Messiah.

(Colossians 1:14 NRS) …in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins.

(Colossians 1:20 NRS) …and through him God was pleased to reconcile to Himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, by making peace through the blood of his cross.

(Hebrews 9:12-25 NRS) He entered once for all into the Holy Place, not with the blood of goats and calves, but with his own blood, thus obtaining eternal redemption.  ¹³For if the blood of goats and bulls, with the sprinkling of the ashes of a heifer, sanctifies those who have been defiled so that their flesh is purified, ¹⁴how much more will the blood of Messiah, who through the eternal Spirit offered himself without blemish to God, purify our conscience from dead works to worship the living God!  ¹⁵For this reason he is the mediator of a new covenant, so that those who are called may receive the promised eternal inheritance, because a death has occurred that redeems them from the transgressions under the first covenant.  ¹⁶Where a will is involved, the death of the one who made it must be established.  ¹⁷For a will takes effect only at death, since it is not in force as long as the one who made it is alive.  ¹⁸Hence not even the first covenant was inaugurated without blood.  ¹⁹For when every commandment had been told to all the people by Moses in accordance with the law, he took the blood of calves and goats, with water and scarlet wool and hyssop, and sprinkled both the scroll itself and all the people, ²⁰saying, This is the blood of the covenant that God has ordained for you.  ²¹And in the same way he sprinkled with the blood both the tent and all the vessels used in worship.  ²²Indeed, under the law almost everything is purified with blood, and without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness of sins.  ²³Thus it was necessary for the sketches of the heavenly things to be purified with these rites, but the heavenly things themselves need better sacrifices than these.  ²⁴For Messiah did not enter a sanctuary made by human hands, a mere copy of the true one, but he entered into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God on our behalf.  ²⁵Nor was it to offer himself again and again, as the high priest enters the Holy Place year after year with blood that is not his own.

(Hebrews 13:12 NRS) Therefore Yeshua also suffered outside the city gate in order to sanctify the people by his own blood.

(1 Peter 1:2 NRS) …who have been chosen and destined by God the Father and sanctified by the Spirit to be obedient to Yeshua Messiah and to be sprinkled with his blood: May grace and peace be yours in abundance.

(1 Peter 1:18-19 NRS) You know that you were ransomed from the futile ways inherited from your ancestors, not with perishable things like silver or gold, ¹⁹but with the precious blood of Messiah, like that of a lamb without defect or blemish.

(Revelation 1:5 NRS) …and from Yeshua Messiah, the faithful witness, the firstborn of the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth.  To him who loves us and freed us from our sins by his blood…

(Revelation 5:6 NRS) Then I saw between the throne and the four living creatures and among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth.

(Revelation 7:14 NRS) I said to him, Sir, you are the one that knows.  Then he said to me, These are they who have come out of the great ordeal; they have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb.

(Revelation 12:11 NRS) But they have conquered him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony, for they did not cling to life even in the face of death.

Many believers freely and comfortably speak of Yeshua as a “sacrifice” without attempting to connect this point of view to the sacrificial system established in the Torah.  According to the doctrine of the Christian Church, Jesus’ sacrifice did away with all that came before him; therefore, there is no need to understand the Messiah’s life, ministry, death, and resurrection in light of the Torah.  However, for those who have been called by the Spirit of the Holy One to enter into the renewed covenant and keep the Torah, understanding this connection is critical.

The first real stumbling block we face is the very clear prohibition against human sacrifice.

(Leviticus 18:21 NRS) You shall not give any of your offspring to sacrifice them to Molech, and so profane the name of your God: I am YHWH.

(Leviticus 20:2 NRS) Say further to the people of Israel: Any of the people of Israel, or of the aliens who reside in Israel, who give any of their offspring to Molech shall be put to death; the people of the land shall stone them to death.

(Deuteronomy 12:30-31 NRS) Take care that you are not snared into imitating them, after they have been destroyed before you: do not inquire concerning their gods, saying, How did these nations worship their gods?  I also want to do the same.  ³¹You must not do the same for YHWH your God, because every abhorrent thing that YHWH hates they have done for their gods.  They would even burn their sons and their daughters in the fire to their gods.

(2 Kings 16:3 NRS) But he walked in the way of the kings of Israel.  He even made his son pass through fire, according to the abominable practices of the nations whom YHWH drove out before the people of Israel.

(2 Kings 17:31 NRS) The Avvites made Nibhaz and Tartak; the Sepharvites burned their children in the fire to Adrammelech and Anammelech, the gods of Sepharvaim.

(2 Kings 23:10 NRS) He defiled Topheth, which is in the valley of Ben-hinnom, so that no one would make a son or a daughter pass through fire as an offering to Molech.

(Psalm 106:37-38 NRS) They sacrificed their sons and their daughters to the demons; ³⁸they poured out innocent blood, the blood of their sons and daughters, whom they sacrificed to the idols of Canaan; and the land was polluted with blood.

(Jeremiah 7:30-31 NRS) For the people of Judah have done evil in My sight, says YHWH; they have set their abominations in the house that is called by My name, defiling it.  ³¹And they go on building the high place of Topheth, which is in the valley of the son of Hinnom, to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire – which I did not command, nor did it come into My mind.

(Jeremiah 19:3-5 NRS) You shall say: Hear the word of YHWH, O kings of Judah and inhabitants of Jerusalem.  Thus says YHWH of hosts, the God of Israel: I am going to bring such disaster upon this place that the ears of everyone who hears of it will tingle.  ⁴Because the people have forsaken Me, and have profaned this place by making offerings in it to other gods whom neither they nor their ancestors nor the kings of Judah have known; and because they have filled this place with the blood of the innocent, ⁵and gone on building the high places of Baal to burn their children in the fire as burnt offerings to Baal, which I did not command or decree, nor did it enter My mind.

(Ezekiel 16:20 NRS) You took your sons and your daughters, whom you had borne to Me, and these you sacrificed to them to be devoured.  As if your whorings were not enough!

The concept of human sacrifice is clearly an appalling abomination to the God of Israel, yet many believers still talk of Yeshua in terms of a human sacrifice.  Some may point to the story of the binding of Isaac as an example of YHWH commanding a human sacrifice.

(Genesis 22:1-2 NRS) After these things God tested Abraham.  He said to him, Abraham!  And he said, Here I am.  ²He said, Take your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah, and offer him there as a burnt offering on one of the mountains that I shall show you.

We are told from the very beginning that this is a test of Abraham’s faithfulness.  While Abraham proved himself willing to sacrifice his son at YHWH’S request, it is also clear that YHWH forbade the offering from being made.

(Genesis 22:10-13 NRS) Then Abraham reached out his hand and took the knife to kill his son.  ¹¹But the messenger of YHWH called to him from heaven, and said, Abraham, Abraham!  And he said, Here I am.  ¹²He said, Do not lay your hand on the boy or do anything to him; for now I know that you fear God, since you have not withheld your son, your only son, from Me.  ¹³And Abraham looked up and saw a ram, caught in a thicket by its horns.  Abraham went and took the ram and offered it up as a burnt offering instead of his son.

There are other issues that add to the difficulties concerning the connection between Yeshua’s life, ministry, and death as they relate to the sacrificial system.  The Torah forbids sacrifices by proxy.  In other words, our sacrifices and offerings are to have a personal cost to them.  We cannot send another to make the offering for us, nor can we sacrifice someone else’s animal.

(Leviticus 7:28-30 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ²⁹Speak to the people of Israel, saying: Any one of you who would offer to YHWH your sacrifice of well-being must yourself bring to YHWH your offering from your sacrifice of well-being.  ³⁰Your own hands shall bring YHWH’S offering by fire; you shall bring the fat with the breast, so that the breast may be raised as an elevation offering before YHWH.

King David refused to make an offering to YHWH that cost him nothing.

(2 Samuel 24:22-24 NRS) Then Araunah said to David, Let my lord the king take and offer up what seems good to him; here are the oxen for the burnt offering, and the threshing sledges and the yokes of the oxen for the wood.  ²All this, O king, Araunah gives to the king.  And Araunah said to the king, May YHWH your God respond favorably to you.  ²But the king said to Araunah, No, but I will buy them from you for a price; I will not offer burnt offerings to YHWH my God that cost me nothing.  So David bought the threshing floor and the oxen for fifty shekels of silver.

The idea that our sacrifices and offerings are to have a personal cost is also behind the sole use of domesticated animals for sacrificial purposes.  Only domesticated animals are acceptable for sacrifices.  Wild animals belong to YHWH and, therefore, are not acceptable as offerings.  While the communal offerings – such as the daily continual offering and the sacrifices for the communal feast day rituals – may at first appear to be sacrifices by proxy, this is not the case.  Even the animals offered in the communal offerings are taken from among the animals dedicated by the people of the community for this purpose.

To see Yeshua’s death as a sin offering, a peace offering, or even a whole-burnt offering would mean that we, as believers, bore the cost of the offering and made the offering from what was ours.  This is clearly not the case.  While Yeshua was a son ofIsrael, Yeshua did not “belong” to us, nor did the people intend to make an “offering” of any kind when Yeshua was crucified.  The Torah makes no provision for one person to make an offering on behalf of another.  Again, the communal offerings are made by the priest on behalf of the whole community, but the cost is borne by the community, not the priest.

It is clear by the testimony of the Tanakh that YHWH searches the heart.

(Genesis 6:5 NRS) YHWH saw that the wickedness of humankind was great in the earth, and that every inclination of the thoughts of their hearts was only evil continually.

(Deuteronomy 6:5 NRS) You shall love YHWH your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might.

(Deuteronomy 8:2 NRS) Remember the long way that YHWH your God has led you these forty years in the wilderness, in order to humble you, testing you to know what was in your heart, whether or not you would keep His commandments.

(1 Samuel 16:7 NRS) But YHWH said to Samuel, Do not look on his appearance or on the height of his stature, because I have rejected him; for YHWH does not see as mortals see; they look on the outward appearance, but YHWH looks on the heart.

The only acceptable offering to YHWH is that which is given with the heart.

(Exodus 25:2 NRS) Tell the Israelites to take for Me an offering; from all whose hearts prompt them to give you shall receive the offering for Me.

The intent of the one making the offering matters.  YHWH repeatedly rejects and rebukes the people ofIsraelfor their heartless religiosity.  YHWH has no interest in such self-serving, empty rituals.

(1 Samuel 15:22 NRS) And Samuel said, Has YHWH as great delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices, as in obeying the voice of YHWH?  Surely, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to heed than the fat of rams.

(Proverbs 15:8 NRS) The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination to YHWH, but the prayer of the upright is His delight.

(Isaiah 1:11-17 NRS) What to Me is the multitude of your sacrifices? says YHWH; I have had enough of burnt offerings of rams and the fat of fed beasts; I do not delight in the blood of bulls, or of lambs, or of goats.  ¹²When you come to appear before Me, who asked this from your hand?  Trample My courts no more; ¹³bringing offerings is futile; incense is an abomination to Me.  New moon and Sabbath and calling of convocation – I cannot endure solemn assemblies with iniquity.  ¹⁴Your new moons and your appointed festivals My soul hates; they have become a burden to Me, I am weary of bearing them.  ¹⁵When you stretch out your hands, I will hide My eyes from you; even though you make many prayers, I will not listen; your hands are full of blood.  ¹⁶Wash yourselves; make yourselves clean; remove the evil of your doings from before My eyes; cease to do evil, ¹⁷learn to do good; seek justice, rescue the oppressed, defend the orphan, plead for the widow.

(Hosea 8:13 NRS) Though they offer choice sacrifices, though they eat flesh, YHWH does not accept them.  Now He will remember their iniquity, and punish their sins; they shall return to Egypt.

It was clearly not the intent of those crucifying Yeshua to make him an offering to YHWH on behalf of themselves or the people.

Another difficulty with understanding Yeshua’s crucifixion as a sacrifice is the fact that he died on a cross a great distance from the Altar.  None of Yeshua’s blood, fat, or flesh was burned upon the Altar.  Yeshua’s blood fell upon the ground; his body hung upon a cross of wood; and he was eventually buried in a tomb.  There are several sacrifices or slaughterings prescribed in the Torah that do take place away from the Altar.  The most significant is that of the red heifer, which is slaughtered and burned outside the camp.

(Numbers 19:1-5 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying: ²This is a statute of the law that YHWH has commanded: Tell the Israelites to bring you a red heifer without defect, in which there is no blemish and on which no yoke has been laid.  ³You shall give it to the priest Eleazar, and it shall be taken outside the camp and slaughtered in his presence.  ⁴The priest Eleazar shall take some of its blood with his finger and sprinkle it seven times towards the front of the tent of meeting.  ⁵Then the heifer shall be burned in his sight; its skin, its flesh, and its blood, with its dung, shall be burned.

The rituals for the cleansing of one suffering from biblical leprosy and for the removal of guilt from a mysterious death both take place away from the Altar.

(Leviticus 14:2-8 NRS) This shall be the ritual for the leprous person at the time of his cleansing: He shall be brought to the priest; ³the priest shall go out of the camp, and the priest shall make an examination.  If the disease is healed in the leprous person, ⁴the priest shall command that two living clean birds and cedarwood and crimson yarn and hyssop be brought for the one who is to be cleansed.  ⁵The priest shall command that one of the birds be slaughtered over fresh water in an earthen vessel.  ⁶He shall take the living bird with the cedarwood and the crimson yarn and the hyssop, and dip them and the living bird in the blood of the bird that was slaughtered over the fresh water.  ⁷He shall sprinkle it seven times upon the one who is to be cleansed of the leprous disease; then he shall pronounce him clean, and he shall let the living bird go into the open field.  ⁸The one who is to be cleansed shall wash his clothes, and shave off all his hair, and bathe himself in water, and he shall be clean.  After that he shall come into the camp, but shall live outside his tent seven days.

(Deuteronomy 21:1-9 NRS) If, in the land that YHWH your God is giving you to possess, a body is found lying in open country, and it is not known who struck the person down, ²then your elders and your judges shall come out to measure the distances to the towns that are near the body.  ³The elders of the town nearest the body shall take a heifer that has never been worked, one that has not pulled in the yoke; ⁴the elders of that town shall bring the heifer down to a wadi with running water, which is neither plowed nor sown, and shall break the heifer’s neck there in the wadi.  ⁵Then the priests, the sons of Levi, shall come forward, for YHWH your God has chosen them to minister to Him and to pronounce blessings in the name of YHWH, and by their decision all cases of dispute and assault shall be settled.  ⁶All the elders of that town nearest the body shall wash their hands over the heifer whose neck was broken in the wadi, ⁷and they shall declare: Our hands did not shed this blood, nor were we witnesses to it.  ⁸Absolve, O YHWH, Your people Israel, whom You redeemed; do not let the guilt of innocent blood remain in the midst of Your people Israel.  Then they will be absolved of bloodguilt.  ⁹So you shall purge the guilt of innocent blood from your midst, because you must do what is right in the sight of YHWH.

There are clearly numerous challenges to the traditional view of Yeshua’s crucifixion as a sacrifice.  Human sacrifice is unacceptable to YHWH.  Yeshua was maliciously crucified by unbelieving Roman soldiers at the provocation of the Jewish religious leaders.  Neither the soldiers nor the religious leaders had any intent of making an offering or sacrifice to YHWH.  Yeshua was crucified outside of the Temple compound.  No part of his body was burned upon the Altar or turned into ash, and his blood was not applied to the horns of the Bronze Altar, the Altar of Incense, or even upon the people.  No priest officiated over his “slaughtering” in any prescribed ritual manner.  Clearly, from a Factual-Literal understanding of the Scriptures, Yeshua’s death cannot be considered a sacrifice as traditionally understood.

To resolve the apparent conflicts between the clear references to Yeshua’s death as a sacrifice and the Torah’s definition of an acceptable sacrifice, we first need to abandon the Literal-Factual view of the Bible.  It is clear that Yeshua’s crucifixion cannot be literally considered a sacrificial offering as is described by the Torah.  The alternative Historical-Metaphorical view of the Scriptures will help us better understand what the authors of the Apostolic Writings were trying to communicate to us concerning Messiah Yeshua’s life, ministry, and death.  To resolve these conflicts, it is essential that we first understand the sacrificial system as taught in the Torah.

Since the majority of the instructions concerning offerings and sacrifices are found in the Priestly source material, let us begin with the understanding of man and his relationship to God according to the P source.

The P source material depicts God as holy and transcendent.  In the P source creation story (Genesis 1:1-2:4a), God creates the universe from a distance through His Word.

(Genesis 1:3 NRS) Then God said, Let there be light; and there was light.

(Genesis 1:6 NRS) And God said, Let there be a dome in the midst of the waters, and let it separate the waters from the waters.

(Genesis 1:9 NRS) And God said, Let the waters under the sky be gathered together into one place, and let the dry land appear.  And it was so.

(Genesis 1:11 NRS) Then God said, Let the earth put forth vegetation: plants yielding seed, and fruit trees of every kind on earth that bear fruit with the seed in it.  And it was so.

We may contrast this Priestly transcendent view of the Creator with the older Yahwist (J) source material.  In the J account of creation (Genesis 2:4bff.), the Creator is depicted as being intimately involved with the process of creation – forming man (Adam) with His own hands from the dust of the ground, breathing life into Adam, placing him in a garden, and creating a helpmate for him from his own rib.

(Genesis 2:7 NRS) Then YHWH God formed man (’adam) from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and the man became a living being.

(Genesis 2:15 NRS) YHWH God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it.

(Genesis 2:18-24 NRS) Then YHWH God said, It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a helper as his partner.  ¹⁹So out of the ground YHWH God formed every animal of the field and every bird of the air, and brought them to the man to see what he would call them; and whatever the man called every living creature, that was its name.  ²⁰The man gave names to all cattle, and to the birds of the air, and to every animal of the field; but for the man there was not found a helper as his partner.  ²¹So YHWH God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept; then He took one of his ribs and closed up its place with flesh.  ²²And the rib that YHWH God had taken from the man He made into a woman and brought her to the man.  ²³Then the man said, This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; this one shall be called Woman, for out of Man this one was taken.  ²⁴Therefore a man leaves his father and his mother and clings to his wife, and they become one flesh.

What is eminently clear from both of these creation accounts is that YHWH, the Sovereign Creator of the universe, desires to be known by, through, and among His creation.  In the older J source material we see YHWH personally speaking to Adam and instructing him.

(Genesis 2:16-17 NRS) And YHWH God commanded the man, You may freely eat of every tree of the garden; ¹⁷but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall die.

Even after Adam and his wife Chava violated the instructions of the Creator, He continued to speak to His creatures.

(Genesis 3:8-11 NRS) They heard the sound of YHWH God walking in the garden at the time of the evening breeze, and the man and his wife hid themselves from the presence of YHWH God among the trees of the garden.  ⁹But YHWH God called to the man, and said to him, Where are you?  ¹⁰He said, I heard the sound of You in the garden, and I was afraid, because I was naked; and I hid myself.  ¹¹He said, Who told you that you were naked?  Have you eaten from the tree of which I commanded you not to eat?

Because Adam and Chava transgressed the Word of God, they suffered two major consequences – separation from God and death.

(Genesis 3:17-19 NRS) And to the man He said, Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten of the tree about which I commanded you, You shall not eat of it, cursed is the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life; ¹⁸thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you; and you shall eat the plants of the field.  ¹⁹By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread until you return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to dust you shall return.

(Genesis 3:24 NRS) He drove out the man; and at the east of the garden of Eden He placed the cherubim, and a sword flaming and turning to guard the way to the tree of life.

We should note that even in the older J source material there is a “sacrificial” system revealed, although no specific instructions are given.  The first implied sacrifice is connected with the making of a “covering” for Adam and Chava’s nakedness.  The second illustration of implied sacrifice involves the apparent agricultural offerings made by Cain and Abel.

(Genesis 3:21 NRS) And YHWH God made garments of skins for the man and for his wife, and clothed them.

(Genesis 4:1-7 NRS) Now the man knew his wife Eve, and she conceived and bore Cain, saying, I have produced a man with the help of YHWH.  ²Next she bore his brother Abel.  Now Abel was a keeper of sheep, and Cain a tiller of the ground.  In the course of time Cain brought to YHWH an offering (minchah) of the fruit of the ground, ⁴and Abel for his part brought of the firstlings of his flock, the fat ones.  And YHWH had regard for Abel and his offering, ⁵but for Cain and his offering He had no regard.  So Cain was very angry, and his countenance fell.  ⁶YHWH said to Cain, Why are you angry, and why has your countenance fallen?  ⁷If you do well, will you not be accepted?  And if you do not do well, sin is lurking at the door; its desire is for you, but you must master it.

Let us note that in the J source material, Abel’s sacrifice appears to be a blood offering, while Cain’s offering is clearly a bloodless minchah offering.  Many teach that Abel’s offering was accepted because it was a blood offering, but there is no evidence of this in the Hebrew text.  The Hebrew reads, “He brought the fat ones,” not “the fat parts.”  The only slaughtering in the story of Cain and Abel is Cain slaughtering or murdering Abel.  When Cain’s offering was rejected for his failure to bring the finest selection of his produce – the “cream of the crop” – he was told to correct the situation by doing what was good, right, and acceptable to YHWH.  The difference in the offerings was not that one was a blood offering and one was not.  The difference in the offerings is found in the hearts of those making the offerings.  Abel cared enough to bring the first and the fattest, while Cain simply brought some of “the fruit of the ground.”  Their gifts revealed their hearts.  What is also important to note in this story is the fact that YHWH still desired to commune with Cain.  YHWH still spoke with Cain and even told him how to correct the situation.  In the J source material it is clear that YHWH desires to be in communion with His creatures.

While the Priestly source material depicts God as transcendent and holy, it still affirms that the Sovereign Creator of the universe desires to be known.  This is made explicitly clear in the narrative of the creation of humanity.

(Genesis 1:26-28 NRS) Then God said, Let Us make humankind (’adam) in Our image, according to Our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.  ²⁷So God created humankind in His image, in the image of God He created them; male and female He created them.  ²⁸God blessed them, and God said to them, Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.

While the word ’adam may be understood as a proper noun in the J source material, it is clearly a simple noun in the P material and is rightly translated above as “humankind.”  In the P version of creation, humankind was created with the specific purpose of being the image and likeness of the Creator in the world.  In other words, the Sovereign Creator desired to make Himself known to His creation and created humankind, both male and female, for this purpose.  Humanity was to be the means through which the Creator would manifest Himself in the world.

To be the vessel through which YHWH would manifest Himself, humankind was to learn to be fruitful and creative and to exercise dominion over the animal realm.  We should understand that the command to have dominion over the animal realm implied that mankind would exercise dominion over his own “animal nature,” i.e., the carnal nature man shares in common with the animals.  For humankind to fulfill this sacred calling to be the vessel through which YHWH would manifest Himself among His creation, it was essential for man to live in obedience to the proper created order.  As long as humankind was being led by the Spirit Creator, the image of God was manifest.  When man failed to live according to the proper created order, humanity fell short of the glory of God.  When led by the desires of the carnal nature rather than the Spirit of the Creator, humanity is no longer useful for being the image of God.

We see this same truth affirmed in the J source material in the stories of the two trees in the Garden of Eden.  God put two trees in the Garden of Eden, the Tree of Life and the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil.  God permitted man to eat freely of the Tree of Life but forbade man to eat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil.  Chava, however, and her husband Adam after her, violated the command of God and listened to the voice of the serpent (the animal nature).  They ate of the forbidden mixed fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil (Genesis 3:1-7).  We are told that when God created Adam and his wife, they were naked but not ashamed.

(Genesis 2:25 NRS) And the man and his wife were both naked, and were not ashamed.

Adam and Chava were naked and not ashamed because they were clothed with the glory of God’s image.  After they violated the command of God and followed their animal nature, they were no longer clothed in God’s glory and, therefore, felt their nakedness and tried to hide it.

(Genesis 3:8-11 NRS) They heard the sound of YHWH God walking in the garden at the time of the evening breeze, and the man and his wife hid themselves from the presence of YHWH God among the trees of the garden.  ⁹But YHWH God called to the man, and said to him, Where are you?  ¹⁰He said, I heard the sound of You in the garden, and I was afraid, because I was naked; and I hid myself.  ¹¹He said, Who told you that you were naked?  Have you eaten from the tree of which I commanded you not to eat?

After Adam and Chava began living according to their own carnal nature, the image of God no longer covered them.  We should note that this violation of the Word of God caused man to feel afraid and ashamed.  We should also note that Adam and Chava’s nakedness caused them to fear God’s presence and separate themselves from the Creator.  Sin clearly causes separation between humanity and the Sovereign Creator, who is the source of life.

Let us recall that the Hebrew word chatta’h (chet, tet, aleph), while often translated as “sin,” literally means “to fall short,” “to miss the mark,” or “to go astray.”  The term chatta’h is borrowed from the realm of archery.  Humankind was created to be the vessel through which the Sovereign Creator would manifest His image in the world.  To be this vessel required that humanity submit to the leading of the Spirit Creator through His revealed Word.  When man failed to exercise dominion over his carnal or animal nature, he fell short, missed the mark, went astray, and failed to reach his target or goal, which was to be the image of YHWH.  When man strayed from the revealed Word of God, he separated himself from the very source of life.  The outcome of sin is death.

(Isaiah 59:2 NRS) Rather, your iniquities have been barriers between you and your God, and your sins have hidden His face from you so that He does not hear.

(Romans 6:23 NRS) For the wages of sin is death…

While we tend to look at sin on an individual basis, we should note that the Torah most often looks at sin on a collective basis.  The Torah teaches thatIsraelas a nation exists by the will and work of YHWH.  The numerous stories of miraculous births, the miraculous deliverance from Egypt, YHWH’S miraculous provision in the wilderness, and Israel’s miraculous victories over superior enemies clearly demonstrate that Israel’s existence is the will and work of YHWH.  Without YHWH’S presence among the children of Israel, inferior Israel is vulnerable to destruction by the numerous empires and nations surrounding her.  Therefore, it is vitally important that the children of Israel follow the revealed protocol for assuring that YHWH’S anointed dwelling place not be defiled, resulting in the withdrawal of the source of their lives and protection.  When the people of Israel miss the mark, go astray, or fall short of their calling, they defile both the image of YHWH and His dwelling place.

Another concern for the people of Israel revolves around the very nature of God.  It is understood by all Israel that YHWH is holy.  IfIsraelis to be the vessel of YHWH’S manifest image in the world, then Israel must likewise be holy.

(Leviticus 11:44-45 NRS) For I am YHWH your God; sanctify yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I am holy.  You shall not defile yourselves with any swarming creature that moves on the earth.  ⁴⁵For I am YHWH who brought you up from the land of Egypt, to be your God; you shall be holy, for I am holy.

(2 Corinthians 6:17-18 NRS) Therefore come out from them, and be separate from them, says YHWH, and touch nothing unclean; then I will welcome you, ¹⁸and I will be your father, and you shall be My sons and daughters, says YHWH Almighty.

God’s holiness is often described as a consuming or refining fire that consumes all dross and defilement.

(Deuteronomy 4:24 NRS) For YHWH your God is a devouring fire, a jealous God.

(Deuteronomy 9:3 NRS) Know then today that YHWH your God is the one who crosses over before you as a devouring fire; He will defeat them and subdue them before you, so that you may dispossess and destroy them quickly, as YHWH has promised you.

(Zechariah 13:9 NRS) And I will put this third into the fire, refine them as one refines silver, and test them as gold is tested.  They will call on My name, and I will answer them. I will say, They are My people; and they will say, YHWH is our God.

(Malachi 3:2-3 NRS) But who can endure the day of His coming, and who can stand when He appears?  For He is like a refiner’s fire and like fullers’ soap; ³he will sit as a refiner and purifier of silver, and He will purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver, until they present offerings to YHWH in righteousness.

(1 Corinthians 3:11-15 NRS) For no one can lay any foundation other than the one that has been laid; that foundation is Yeshua Messiah.  ¹²Now if anyone builds on the foundation with gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, straw – ¹³the work of each builder will become visible, for the Day will disclose it, because it will be revealed with fire, and the fire will test what sort of work each has done.  ¹⁴If what has been built on the foundation survives, the builder will receive a reward.  ¹⁵If the work is burned up, the builder will suffer loss; the builder will be saved, but only as through fire.

(Hebrews 12:29 NRS) For indeed our God is a consuming fire.

After the children of Israel fell short of their calling to be the image of God by making a golden image of Him in the form of a calf, YHWH separated Himself from the Israelites for fear that He would consume them as dross in their nakedness.

(Exodus 33:3-5 NRS) Go up to a land flowing with milk and honey; but I will not go up among you, or I would consume you on the way, for you are a stiff-necked people.  ⁴When the people heard these harsh words, they mourned, and no one put on ornaments.  ⁵For YHWH had said to Moses, Say to the Israelites, You are a stiff-necked people; if for a single moment I should go up among you, I would consume you.  So now take off your ornaments, and I will decide what to do to you.

To overcome the separation caused by sin (falling short of the mark), the Sovereign Creator instituted the sacrificial system.  We should understand this system as an incredible testimony to the mercy and grace of YHWH.  The sacrificial system is YHWH’S provision for overcoming the separation from Him caused by our sin, whether the separation is the result of our withdrawal from YHWH out of fear of being consumed by His holy presence or by YHWH’S withdrawal from our presence due to the defilement of His Tabernacle (living or otherwise).

It is important to understand that literacy (reading and writing) was not widespread in Israel until the eighth through the seventh centuries B.C.E.  In other words, the primary means of communication in early Israel was the spoken word and the visual observation of ritual customs and practices.  In this regard, we should understand that the sacrificial system serves largely as visible words.  We may think of the cultic practices as object lessons or living stained-glass windows designed to tell a story or communicate a truth.  This means that the primary function of the sacrificial system is to serve as a means of communication.

We have already stated that the mere institution of the sacrificial system demonstrates or communicates the Sovereign Creator’s desire to commune with man in spite of his falling short of the mark of his calling.  We should, therefore, see the sacrificial system as the means by which the Sovereign One communicates His continued love for His creation and His desire to be known among, through, and by His creation.  By making provision for fallen man to draw near without fear of destruction, YHWH shows Himself to be unchanging and merciful.

We should also understand that the sacrificial system provides fallen man with a means of communicating his desire to draw near to and be in fellowship with his Creator.  It is no accident that the offerings and sacrifices listed in the Torah are referred to as qorban (qof, resh, bet, nun).  The word qorban is derived from the Hebrew root word qarav (qof, resh, vet), which means “to draw near.”  By bringing an offering (qorban), the worshipper expresses his or her desire “to draw near” (qarav) to the Creator.

These offerings can be understood in terms of hospitality in the ancient Near East.  Hospitality was understood as a great virtue.  While there is no single Hebrew word for hospitality in the Torah, there are ample stories demonstrating its practice and virtue.  Concerning the importance of hospitality in the ancient Near East, John Koenig writes:

The Hebrew Scriptures contain no single word for hospitality, but the activity itself is prominent, especially in the patriarchal stories and accounts in the book of Judges.  In these narratives the practice usually illustrates Bedouin traditions having to do with a resident’s obligation to nourish and protect travelers who find themselves in hostile environments.

Thus, in Gen. 18:1ff. Abraham rushes out of his tent to greet three strangers who approach him “in the heat of the day.”  When a feast is set before them, these unknown visitors reveal how God’s promise concerning the son to be born of Abraham and Sara is at long last approaching fulfillment.  By conveying their message the guests return a favor to their host, thus setting in motion a numinous reciprocity which is typical of stories about table fellowship in the ancient world.  A similar exchange occurs when Abraham’s servant visits Mesopotamia to procure a wife for Isaac (Gen. 24:1-49).  Having reached his destination, the servant prays that God will make known the desired bride in the person of the first young woman who not only responds to his request for a drink of water, but also offers, on her own initiative, to water his camels as well.  This turns out to be Rebekah.  Over dinner in the house of Rebekah’s father the servant discloses his identity and tells of his mission, ending with an account of the answered prayer.  In both of these patriarchal stories God’s will comes to light through an act of hospitality.[5]

A more direct encounter with the divine occurs in a meal scene recorded by the pre-exilic author of Exodus 24.  Immediately following the ratification of the Sinai covenant Moses, Aaron, and 70 elders of Israel ascend the holy mountain at God’s command.  Still at some distance from the top, “they saw the God of Israel…and he did not lay his hand on the chief men of Israel; they beheld God, and ate and drank” (Exod. 24:9-11).[6]

Another feature of hospitality that emerges from the OT record is Israel’s deep sense of God as its host.  Conscious of its formation from descendants of a “wandering Aramean,” Israel knew and treasured its identity as a pilgrim people (Deut. 26:5-19), especially during the Exodus journey when it received manna from God in the wilderness (Exod. 16).  Having taken possession of the promised land, the Israelites nevertheless remembered that their home belonged to Yahweh (Lev. 25:23) and that they, like their forebears, remained sojourners and passing guests in God’s eyes (Ps. 39:12).[7]

The idea of “breaking bread” with someone implies a certain degree of intimacy and even a covenant between host and guest, as we observe in Exodus 24 when the elders ate a meal in the presence of God as part of the ratification of the covenant.

(Exodus 24:9-11 NRS) Then Moses and Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel went up, ¹⁰and they saw the God of Israel.  Under His feet there was something like a pavement of sapphire stone, like the very heaven for clearness.  ¹¹God did not lay His hand on the chief men of the people of Israel; also they beheld God, and they ate and drank.

We see other such examples throughout the Bible.

(Genesis 26:26-30 NRS) Then Abimelech went to him from Gerar, with Ahuzzath his adviser and Phicol the commander of his army.  ²⁷Isaac said to them, Why have you come to me, seeing that you hate me and have sent me away from you?  ²⁸They said, We see plainly that YHWH has been with you; so we say, let there be an oath between you and us, and let us make a covenant with you ²⁹so that you will do us no harm, just as we have not touched you and have done to you nothing but good and have sent you away in peace.  You are now the blessed of YHWH.  ³⁰So he made them a feast, and they ate and drank.

(Genesis 31:45-54 NRS) So Jacob took a stone, and set it up as a pillar.  ⁴⁶And Jacob said to his kinsfolk, Gather stones, and they took stones, and made a heap; and they ate there by the heap.  ⁴⁷Laban called it Jegar-sahadutha: but Jacob called it Galeed.  ⁴⁸Laban said, This heap is a witness between you and me today.  Therefore he called it Galeed, ⁴⁹and the pillar Mizpah, for he said, YHWH watch between you and me, when we are absent one from the other.  ⁵⁰If you ill-treat my daughters, or if you take wives in addition to my daughters, though no one else is with us, remember that God is witness between you and me.  ⁵¹Then Laban said to Jacob, See this heap and see the pillar, which I have set between you and me.  ⁵²This heap is a witness, and the pillar is a witness, that I will not pass beyond this heap to you, and you will not pass beyond this heap and this pillar to me, for harm.  ⁵³May the God of Abraham and the God of Nahor – the God of their father – judge between us.  So Jacob swore by the Fear of his father Isaac, ⁵⁴and Jacob offered a sacrifice on the height and called his kinsfolk to eat bread; and they ate bread and tarried all night in the hill country.

(Mark 14:22-24 NRS) While they were eating, he [Yeshua] took a loaf of bread, and after blessing it he broke it, gave it to them, and said, Take; this is my body.  ²³Then he took a cup, and after giving thanks he gave it to them, and all of them drank from it.  ²⁴He said to them, This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many.

The Tabernacle was understood by our ancestors as the earthly dwelling place of YHWH.

(Exodus 25:8 NRS) And have them make Me a sanctuary, so that I may dwell among them.

The offering of meat, bread, and wine was understood as a food offering.  Depending upon the type of offering being made, the worshipper would place YHWH’S portion upon the Altar.  The offering would be “consumed” upon the Altar.  Anthropologists and archaeologists have long sought to understand the intent of these ancient rituals.  Gary A. Anderson reports:

Hubert and Mauss argued against the crudely mechanistic theory of Tylor (do ut des).  On the one hand, they agreed with Tylor in seeing sacrifice as a form of a gift to the deity.  Yet, on the other hand, they argued that sacrificial victims fashioned a link between the profane and sacral worlds.  The animal becomes a mediating vehicle because it partakes of both realms: its body belongs to the physical world whereas its life belongs to the spiritual realm.  This mediator, the sacrificial victim, became identified with the sacrifice (Hubert and Mauss’ term for the individual who makes the sacrifice) during the moment of consecration.[8]

In this food offering, or as is the case with the sh^elamim (peace) offering, the meal is shared between the person offering the meal and YHWH.  By providing food as a gift, the worshipper expresses his desire to commune with the Creator and thereby overcome the “shortfall” that separated him from God. Anderson continues:

One prominent evolutionary model that has been popular in biblical handbooks is the motif of sacrifice as food for the gods.  God is portrayed in this model as an anthropomorphic being who requires daily sustenance like any human being.

Against this primitive mode of religious thought, some scholars have chosen to juxtapose the more evolved form of religion found in the Bible:

If I am hungry, will I not tell you?

For the earth and what fills it are mine.

Do I eat the flesh of bulls,

The blood of goats do I drink?

Sacrifice to God praise!

Fulfill, to the Most High, your vows (Ps. 50:12-14).

To be sure, this psalm explicitly says that YHWH needs no food.  But before quickly concluding that the Bible’s account of sacrifice is on a higher evolutionary level, one must account for the enormous amount of evidence that portrays Israelite sacrifice as food for YHWH.  Countless texts from every period describe YHWH’S sacrifice as food.  The altar itself is called “the table of YHWH.”  The sacrifices are called “YHWH’S food.”[9]

(Leviticus 3:11 NRS) Then the priest shall turn these into smoke on the altar as a food offering by fire to YHWH.

(Leviticus 3:16 NRS) Then the priest shall turn these into smoke on the altar as a food offering by fire for a pleasing odor.  All fat is YHWH’S.

(Malachi 1:7 NRS) By offering polluted food on My altar.  And you say, How have we polluted it?  By thinking that YHWH’S table may be despised.

(Malachi 1:12 NRS) But you profane it when you say that the Lord’s table is polluted, and the food for it may be despised.

While pagan religions taught that their gods required gifts of food to live and be happy, YHWH makes it very clear that He neither needs nor desires the meat and blood of our livestock.

(Psalm 50:12-14 NRS) If I were hungry, I would not tell you, for the world and all that is in it is Mine.  ¹³Do I eat the flesh of bulls, or drink the blood of goats?  ¹⁴Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and pay your vows to the Most High.

The physical offerings – the meat, the bread, and the wine – serve only as visible words to express what is in the heart.  YHWH does not desire empty rituals; He seeks for the heart of the giver.

(Deuteronomy 10:12-13 NRS) So now, O Israel, what does YHWH your God require of you?  Only to fear YHWH your God, to walk in all His ways, to love Him, to serve YHWH your God with all your heart and with all your soul, ¹³and to keep the commandments of YHWH your God and His decrees that I am commanding you today, for your own well-being.

(1 Samuel 15:22 NRS) And Samuel said, Has YHWH as great delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices, as in obeying the voice of YHWH?  Surely, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to heed than the fat of rams.

(Proverbs 15:8 NRS) The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination to YHWH, but the prayer of the upright is His delight.

(Isaiah 1:11-17 NRS) What to Me is the multitude of your sacrifices? says YHWH; I have had enough of burnt offerings of rams and the fat of fed beasts; I do not delight in the blood of bulls, or of lambs, or of goats.  ¹²When you come to appear before Me, who asked this from your hand?  Trample My courts no more; ¹³bringing offerings is futile; incense is an abomination to Me.  New moon and Sabbath and calling of convocation – I cannot endure solemn assemblies with iniquity.  ¹⁴Your new moons and your appointed festivals My soul hates; they have become a burden to Me, I am weary of bearing them.  ¹⁵When you stretch out your hands, I will hide My eyes from you; even though you make many prayers, I will not listen; your hands are full of blood.  ¹⁶Wash yourselves; make yourselves clean; remove the evil of your doings from before My eyes; cease to do evil, ¹⁷learn to do good; seek justice, rescue the oppressed, defend the orphan, plead for the widow.

(Micah 6:8 NRS) He has told you, O mortal, what is good; and what does YHWH require of you but to do justice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God?

As we have already stated, YHWH is interested in the heart.  YHWH desires to draw near to us.  YHWH desires that we draw near to Him.  The sacrificial system is merely an external expression of what is supposed to be an internal reality.

By slaughtering an animal and offering it to YHWH as an expression of our desire to draw near to Him, we declare that we are sorry for falling short.  We also express that we are willing to exercise dominion over (i.e., to slay) the animal nature that led us astray.  By listening to our carnal nature rather than the Spirit Creator, we missed the mark (sinned) and fell short of the glory of God.  Now, at the Altar, we slay the beast and express our desire to fulfill our calling by obediently following the protocol that YHWH established for us.  When we obediently submit ourselves in faith to the commandments of YHWH, we present ourselves to Him as an acceptable and living sacrifice.

Another function of the sacrificial system is to declare the cost of our shortcomings.  Since humankind was declared to be the chosen vessel through which YHWH would manifest Himself in creation, humanity is understood to be the image of God.  When we do that which is not consistent with the image of God, we confuse, pollute, defile, distort, and desecrate His image.  Therefore, YHWH commands that blood be shed to demonstrate the cost of sin, which separates us from the source of life.  By shedding blood as a “sin offering,” we declare our sin as deadly and inconsistent with the image of God and symbolically cover the sin with blood.

The offerings of blood, as well as the incense offering, can be understood as providing a covering so that the defilement of our sins and shortcomings will not be seen by the Holy One.  The Hebrew word kafar (kaf, fey, resh), often translated as “atonement,” literally means “to cover.”  The blood of the offerings and the smoke of the incense provide a protective covering that allows YHWH to draw near and abide among us without being contaminated or defiled by our sins.  The smoke of the incense provides a protective covering so that Aaron the High Priest can draw near to the Holy One without fear of being consumed by YHWH’S holiness.  By covering the “dross” and defilement of our lives, YHWH can draw near to us in His grace and mercy.  We must understand that what makes this ritual efficacious is not the blood and smoke; it is our faith in YHWH and our trust in His provision and promises that we demonstrate by our obedience to what He commanded.

When we speak of Yeshua in light of the sacrificial system, we must be clear to understand that we are speaking in a metaphorical or symbolic way, not literally.  As we have already stated earlier, we cannot speak of Yeshua as a “literal” sacrifice or offering without contradicting the Torah.  Instead, we must understand the Apostolic Writings as speaking of Yeshua in light of the sacrifices and offerings but not as a literal sacrifice or offering.  In other words, Yeshua fulfills the functions of the various sacrifices and offerings.

Let us look at Yeshua in relation to the sin offering.

(John 1:29 NRS) The next day he saw Yeshua coming toward him and declared, Here is the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world!

(Revelation 1:5 NRS) …and from Yeshua Messiah, the faithful witness, the firstborn of the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth.  To him who loves us and freed us from our sins by his blood.

First, let us note that according to the Torah, bulls are used for the sin offerings of priests, and goats are used for the sin offerings of rulers and ordinary people.  Lambs, however, are not generally used for sin offerings.  This detail in itself should tell us that John is speaking metaphorically rather than literally.  It is clear, however, that John is teaching that Yeshua’s life, ministry, and death fulfill the function of a sin offering.

If sin (chatta’h) is falling short of the glory of God, then Yeshua, as the “Lamb of God who takes away the sins (shortcomings) of the world,” functions as a sin offering, which draws us near to the Father (the target).  Understanding this declaration of Yeshua metaphorically, we can interpret John’s words as saying that Yeshua is the man (’adam) who, by his obedience in all things even unto to death, did what no other human (’adam) did.  He kept the Torah, and on behalf of humanity (’adam), he hit the mark!  In other words, Yeshua took away the gap between God and humankind.

Because of Yeshua’s complete obedience, he enjoyed an intimate relationship with the Father.  There was no gap between Yeshua and YHWH.  The author of Hebrews describes this intimate, gap-free relationship in terms of entering into the Holy of Holies made without hands.

(Hebrews 9:12-14 NRS) He entered once for all into the Holy Place, not with the blood of goats and calves, but with his own blood, thus obtaining eternal redemption.  ¹³For if the blood of goats and bulls, with the sprinkling of the ashes of a heifer, sanctifies those who have been defiled so that their flesh is purified, ¹⁴how much more will the blood of Messiah, who through the eternal Spirit offered himself without blemish to God, purify our conscience from dead works to worship the living God!

Let us be very clear that this is simply metaphorical speech.  Yeshua died on the cross.  His life-blood poured out on the ground.

(John 19:30 NRS) When Yeshua had received the wine, he said, It is finished.  Then he bowed his head and gave up his spirit.

(John 19:34 NRS) Instead, one of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear, and at once blood and water came out.

When Yeshua ascended, there was no mention of him carrying a bowl of blood with him.

(Acts 1:9 NRS) When he had said this, as they were watching, he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight.

Let us understand that according to the Torah, the life or soul is in the blood.

(Leviticus 17:11 NRS) For the life of the flesh is in the blood; and I have given it to you for making atonement for your lives on the altar; for, as life, it is the blood that makes atonement.

By teaching that Yeshua entered into the Holy of Holies with his own blood rather than that of bulls and goats, the author of the letter to the Hebrews is telling us that Yeshua bridged the gap (the falling short because of sin) and entered into an intimate relationship with the Father (symbolized by the Holy of Holies) by giving his life (symbolized by his blood) in loving obedience to the Father rather than through empty rituals (represented by the blood of bulls and goats).

By obediently keeping the Torah, Yeshua became the perfect image of YHWH.

(John 14:9 NRS) Yeshua said to him, Have I been with you all this time, Philip, and you still do not know me?  Whoever has seen me has seen the Father.  How can you say, Show us the Father?

(2 Corinthians 4:4 NRS) In their case the god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelievers, to keep them from seeing the light of the gospel of the glory of Messiah, who is the image of God.

(Colossians 1:15 NRS) He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation.

(Hebrews 1:3 NRS) He is the reflection of God’s glory and the exact imprint of God’s very being, and He sustains all things by His powerful word.  When he had made purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high.

Through Yeshua, YHWH manifested His incredible love and mercy toward humankind and has drawn people to Himself.  By being “lifted up,” Yeshua draws all men to himself and then presents them to the Father.

(John 12:32 NRS) And I, when I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all people to myself.

Because of Yeshua’s resurrection from the dead, we are set free from the fear of death.  In this regard, Yeshua may be considered our Passover Lamb.

(1 Corinthians 5:7 NRS) Clean out the old yeast so that you may be a new batch, as you really are unleavened.  For our paschal lamb, Messiah, has been sacrificed.

The Passover lamb is associated with our liberation from bondage inEgypt.  Yeshua, as our Passover, is associated with our liberation from sin (which causes separation from YHWH, the source of life) and fear of the resulting death.

(John 8:34 NRS) Yeshua answered them, Very truly, I tell you, everyone who commits sin is a slave to sin.

(Romans 6:23 NRS) For the wages of sin is death…

By his resurrection from the dead, Messiah Yeshua defeated death, assuring us that death is not the end of the story.

(1 Corinthians 15:54-57 NRS) When this perishable body puts on imperishability, and this mortal body puts on immortality, then the saying that is written will be fulfilled: Death has been swallowed up in victory.  ⁵⁵Where, O death, is your victory?  Where, O death, is your sting?  ⁵⁶The sting of death is sin, and the power of sin is the law.  ⁵⁷But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Yeshua Messiah.

With death defeated, we should not be afraid to die.  Death is but a momentary inconvenience.  Free from the fear of death, we may embrace the cross, putting the old, carnally directed man to death and rising in Messiah a new being with a heart set on lovingly fulfilling our calling to be the image of YHWH.

(Luke 9:23 NRS) Then he said to them all, If any want to become my followers, let them deny themselves and take up their cross daily and follow me.

(Ephesians 4:21-24 NRS) For surely you have heard about him and were taught in him, as truth is in Yeshua.  ²²You were taught to put away your former way of life, your old self, corrupt and deluded by its lusts, ²³and to be renewed in the spirit of your minds, ²⁴and to clothe yourselves with the new self, created according to the likeness of God in true righteousness and holiness.

It is important to recognize that Yeshua was speaking metaphorically here.  When Yeshua taught his disciples to “deny themselves and take up their cross daily,” he had not yet been crucified.  Therefore, the phrase “the cross” was metaphorical for silencing the voice of the flesh (denying oneself) in order to heed the Word of God.  By teaching us how to take the carnal nature to the cross in order that we may keep the Torah from the heart, Yeshua showed us what it takes to hit the target.  By conforming ourselves to Messiah’s character, faithfulness, obedience, and righteousness, we become members of his body.

(Romans 8:29 NRS) For those whom He foreknew He also predestined to be conformed to the image of His Son, in order that he might be the firstborn within a large family.

(1 Corinthians 12:27 NRS) Now you are the body of Messiah and individually members of it.

(1 Corinthians 15:47-49 NRS) The first man was from the earth, a man of dust; the second man is from heaven.  ⁴⁸As was the man of dust, so are those who are of the dust; and as is the man of heaven, so are those who are of heaven.  ⁴⁹Just as we have borne the image of the man of dust, we will also bear the image of the man of heaven.

It is, therefore, in Messiah that we reach the target.  We must put on Messiah if we are to know the intimate, life-giving relationship that was experienced by Yeshua.  In this regard, put on the Messiah – his faithfulness, righteousness, obedience, love, and character – as a covering.  By embracing the life, teachings, ministry, and obedience of Messiah, we put on his perfect righteousness in place of our imperfect righteousness.  Our own sins and shortcomings are covered in his perfect life.  In Yeshua’s life of obedience, even unto death on the cross (i.e., without shortcomings, even when threatened with the possibility of death), he showed us the way of everlasting life.  By his resurrection, Yeshua liberated us from the paralyzing fear of death.  In this liberation from bondage to sin and fear of death, Yeshua can be compared to the Passover Lamb.

Finally, we must acknowledge that our old, carnally motivated and directed self will never reach the target.  After his death, Yeshua poured out the Spirit upon the rest of his body – the body of Messiah.

(John 16:7 NRS) Nevertheless I tell you the truth: it is to your advantage that I go away, for if I do not go away, the Advocate will not come to you; but if I go, I will send Him to you.

The carnal or animal nature is self-serving and will never lead us to the target.  Yeshua taught that if we are to see and enter thekingdomofYHWH, we must be born not of the flesh but of the Spirit.

(John 3:3-5 NRS) Yeshua answered him, Very truly, I tell you, no one can see the kingdom of God without being born from above.  ⁴Nicodemus said to him, How can anyone be born after having grown old?  Can one enter a second time into the mother’s womb and be born?  ⁵Yeshua answered, Very truly, I tell you, no one can enter the kingdom of God without being born of water and Spirit.

(John 6:63 NRS) It is the Spirit that gives life; the flesh is useless.  The words that I have spoken to you are spirit and life.

(Romans 8:5-8 NRS) For those who live according to the flesh set their minds on the things of the flesh, but those who live according to the Spirit set their minds on the things of the Spirit.  ⁶To set the mind on the flesh is death, but to set the mind on the Spirit is life and peace.  ⁷For this reason the mind that is set on the flesh is hostile to God; it does not submit to God’s law – indeed it cannot, ⁸and those who are in the flesh cannot please God.

(1 Corinthians 15:50 NRS) What I am saying, brothers and sisters, is this: flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable inherit the imperishable.

When we conform ourselves to the character of Messiah, we become members of his body.  As members of the body of Messiah we are animated and motivated by the same Spirit that animated and motivated Yeshua.  By the power of the Spirit we offer ourselves as members of his body – living sacrifices to YHWH.  Moved and motivated by the same Spirit that moved Yeshua to love and obedience, we so identify ourselves in faith with Messiah that we put our old, carnal nature to death on the cross and live to the glory of the Father.

Yeshua was a living sacrifice.  His bold obedience to his calling ultimately cost him his life, but so great was his love for the Father and his brethren that he willingly accepted his costly fate at the hands of the Jewish religious leaders and Roman soldiers.  Yeshua willingly gave his life in faithfulness so that we would be moved by his love and pick up our cross and follow him in a life of love for YHWH demonstrated in our dedication and obedience.  By giving his life in obedience to the Father, Yeshua can be said to have “purchased” us by his blood, thus making him our redeemer.  By teaching us the way of the cross, Yeshua provided the means by which we too may be reconciled to the Father and draw near to Him in love.  In Messiah we may boldly come to the throne of grace in our time of need.  By faith we put on Messiah’s perfect righteousness so that we may enter the wedding feast and enjoy the Father’s hospitality.

We must be careful not to over-literalize the symbolic and metaphorical language used in Scripture when we read of Yeshua as a sacrifice for our sin, our atonement, or our Passover Lamb.  Yeshua does fulfill the function of these offerings, but he was not a “human sacrifice” in the literal sense of the word.  Yeshua did sacrifice his life – just as we are called to offer ourselves up as living sacrifices.  The conflict between the language of the Apostolic Writings and the Torah is resolved if we understand that the sacrificial language concerning Yeshua is metaphorical rather than literal.  Yeshua offered up his life to the Father.  This offering was given from the moment Yeshua received the Spirit, resisted the temptation of his flesh, and spent his life as the perfect disciple, doing his Master’s bidding.

 OUTLINE:

• Leviticus 1:1-17           The ‘olah offering
• Leviticus 2:1-16           The minchah offering
• Leviticus 3:1-17           The sh^elamim offering
• Leviticus 4:1-35           The chatta’t offering
• Leviticus 5:1-6:7          The ’asham offering

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1.  What is the traditional name of the book of Leviticus?
2. What is the “source” of the material?
3. When was this material “written”?
4. What social and political events may have shaped the writing of this material?
5. What was at the center of King Hezekiah’s reform?
6. What difference regarding sacrifices exists between the JE tradition and the P tradition?
7. What is the heart of the P source message?
8. What two categories of offerings are we given in this portion?
9. What do these offerings communicate to God?
10. What do these offerings communicate to man?

TEACHING:

The traditional Hebrew name of the third book of the Torah is Vayiqra, taken from the first word of the text, vayiqra, which is translated “and He called.”  The traditional rabbinic name of the third book of the Torah is Torat HaKohanim.  This early title for the collection of writings known today as “Vayiqra” may be understood in two ways: “The Instructions for the Priests” or “The Instructions of the Priests.”  Both readings are quite appropriate to the content and purpose of the text.  Within the context of the redacted biblical narrative, these instructions concerning the various offerings to be offered upon the Bronze Altar of the Tabernacle logically follow the report of the completion and erection of the Tabernacle at the conclusion of the book of Shemot/Exodus.

(Exodus 40:16-17 NRS) Moses did everything just as YHWH had commanded him.  ¹⁷In the first month in the second year, on the first day of the month, the tabernacle was set up.

(Exodus 40:34-35 NRS) Then the cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the glory of YHWH filled the tabernacle.  ³⁵Moses was not able to enter the tent of meeting because the cloud settled upon it, and the glory of YHWH filled the tabernacle.

We should note that Exodus 34:29 to Leviticus 16:34 is all P (Priestly) source material.  This means that this material was most likely written in the time of King Hezekiah (728-687 B.C.E.) during the great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom of Israel.  Much of what we read in the P material was written at a time when the cultic practices and priestly functions were already highly developed.  Many scholars suggest that the descriptions of the Tabernacle in the wilderness, the priesthood, and the Altar services are based on the later and very developed Temple service and priesthood.  This contemporary description was then “shrunken to scale” and “projected back” in time to Moses and the revelation at Sinai.  While such a thought may seem to impugn the integrity of the text itself, this is not the case.  It is important that we understand that literacy, the act of reading and writing, was extremely limited in the time of Moses.  This limited literacy is evident even in the Torah text itself, which places greater emphasis on what Moses “said” rather than what Moses “wrote.”

There were no printing presses in early Israel.  Most of what was taught was taught through oral transmission or by practice.  Even when writing did begin to appear in Israel, it was largely limited to the royal court and the Temple.  The instructions, customs, and practices that were eventually recorded in writing were those that had been preserved and passed down orally and by practice over many generations.  While these practices and customs may well have changed and adapted to accommodate Israel’s ever-changing circumstances (such as the transition from the mobile Tabernacle in the wilderness to the permanent Temple in the capital city of Jerusalem), they are still rooted in the instructions received and given by Moses at Mount Sinai.  While what is recorded in the written P material may not be “exactly” what Moses received at Mount Sinai, it is clear that the practices of the Temple have their roots in the Sinai event.

The social and political changes at the time of the writing of the P material directly impacted the material preserved and transmitted by the Priestly source author(s).  If, as many scholars now agree, the P source material was written in the day of Hezekiah, then this material was being written during or just after the mass influx of refugees from Israel into Judah.  Assyria’s victory overIsraelwas portrayed as YHWH’S judgment for Israel’s harlotry with the gods of Canaan and Syria, as well as for the unauthorized establishment of a false priesthood, false festivals, and false temples at Bethel and Dan.

(1 Kings 12:32 NRS) Jeroboam appointed a festival on the fifteenth day of the eighth month like the festival that was in Judah, and he offered sacrifices on the altar; so he did in Bethel, sacrificing to the calves that he had made.  And he placed in Bethel the priests of the high places that he had made.

(2 Kings 15:29 NRS) In the days of King Pekah of Israel, King Tiglath-pileser of Assyria came and captured Ijon, Abel-beth-maacah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor, Gilead, and Galilee, all the land of Naphtali; and he carried the people captive to Assyria.

(Jeremiah 3:6-8 NRS) YHWH said to me in the days of King Josiah: Have you seen what she did, that faithless one, Israel, how she went up on every high hill and under every green tree, and played the whore there?  ⁷And I thought, After she has done all this she will return to Me; but she did not return, and her false sister Judah saw it.  ⁸She saw that for all the adulteries of that faithless one, Israel, I had sent her away with a decree of divorce; yet her false sister Judah did not fear, but she too went and played the whore.

King Hezekiah, the only king who is described as being like David, sought to restore the glory of the Davidic Kingdom by reuniting the kingdoms of Judah and Israel.  This reunification of the two kingdoms was made possible and necessary by the Assyrian destruction of Israel.  It should be understood that the reunification of the two kingdoms took place in the territory of the kingdom of Judah.  The influx of refugees from the kingdom of Israel and the conquering of Judean cities by Sennacherib, the Assyrian king, forced the urbanization of rural Judah.

(2 Kings 18:13 NRS) In the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah, King Sennacherib of Assyria came up against all the fortified cities of Judah and captured them.

The smaller territory made possible the merging of the two kingdoms into one, the centralization of political power, and the centralization of religious and cultic practices.  A central part of Hezekiah’s reform was the centralization of the priesthood and cultic practices, as well as the elimination of other altars, high places, and shrines.

(2 Kings 18:3 NRS) He [Hezekiah] did what was right in the sight of YHWH just as his ancestor David had done.

(2 Kings 18:22 NRS) But if you say to me, We rely on YHWH our God, is it not He whose high places and altars Hezekiah has removed, saying to Judah and to Jerusalem, You shall worship before this altar in Jerusalem?

(2 Chronicles 32:12 NRS) Was it not this same Hezekiah who took away His high places and His altars and commanded Judah and Jerusalem, saying, Before one altar you shall worship, and upon it you shall make your offerings?

(Isaiah 36:7 NRS) But if you say to me, We rely on YHWH our God, is it not He whose high places and altars Hezekiah has removed, saying to Judah and to Jerusalem, You shall worship before this altar?

In the older J and E source material, we read of various people making altars and offering sacrifices to YHWH in numerous places.

(Genesis 8:20 NRS) Then Noah built an altar to YHWH, and took of every clean animal and of every clean bird, and offered burnt offerings on the altar.

(Genesis 12:7 NRS) Then YHWH appeared to Abram, and said, To your offspring I will give this land.  So he built there an altar to YHWH, who had appeared to him.

(Genesis 17:5 NRS) No longer shall your name be Abram, but your name shall be Abraham; for I have made you the ancestor of a multitude of nations.

(Genesis 22:9 NRS) When they came to the place that God had shown him, Abraham built an altar there and laid the wood in order.  He bound his son Isaac, and laid him on the altar, on top of the wood.

(Genesis 24:6 NRS) Abraham said to him, See to it that you do not take my son back there.

(Exodus 17:15 NRS) And Moses built an altar and called it, YHWH is my banner.

In the P source material, however, there were no offerings or sacrifices made until the erection of the Tabernacle and the institution of the Aaronic priesthood.  According to the author(s) of the P source material, the first sacrifice or offering was made only after the Tabernacle was dedicated and Aaron and his sons were consecrated.

(Exodus 40:26-33 NRS) He put the golden altar in the tent of meeting before the curtain, ²⁷and offered fragrant incense on it; as YHWH had commanded Moses.  ²⁸He also put in place the screen for the entrance of the tabernacle.  ²⁹He set the altar of burnt offering at the entrance of the tabernacle of the tent of meeting, and offered on it the burnt offering and the grain offering as YHWH had commanded Moses.  ³⁰He set the basin between the tent of meeting and the altar, and put water in it for washing, ³¹with which Moses and Aaron and his sons washed their hands and their feet.  ³²When they went into the tent of meeting, and when they approached the altar, they washed; as YHWH had commanded Moses.  ³³He set up the court around the tabernacle and the altar, and put up the screen at the gate of the court.  So Moses finished the work.

We should understand that Leviticus 1:1-7:38, which contains the instructions for the people and priests concerning the offerings, does not necessarily appear in chronological order.  In other words, we do not know when Moses received the instructions regarding the offerings and priests, nor when he relayed them.  We should understand the ordination service of Aaron and his sons as beginning on the first day of the first month and lasting eight days from the time the Tabernacle was erected.

(Exodus 40:1-2 NRS) YHWH spoke to Moses: ²On the first day of the first month you shall set up the tabernacle of the tent of meeting.

(Exodus 40:17 NRS) In the first month in the second year, on the first day of the month, the tabernacle was set up.

(Leviticus 8:31-33 NRS) And Moses said to Aaron and his sons, Boil the flesh at the entrance of the tent of meeting, and eat it there with the bread that is in the basket of ordination offerings, as I was commanded, Aaron and his sons shall eat it; ³²and what remains of the flesh and the bread you shall burn with fire.  ³³You shall not go outside the entrance of the tent of meeting for seven days, until the day when your period of ordination is completed.  For it will take seven days to ordain you.

(Leviticus 9:1-2 NRS) On the eighth day Moses summoned Aaron and his sons and the elders of Israel.  ²He said to Aaron, Take a bull calf for a sin offering and a ram for a burnt offering, without blemish, and offer them before YHWH.

According to the P source, there is to be only one God, one Altar, and one legitimate priesthood in the nation of Israel.  This declaration takes on particular importance when we recall that the P material was written either during or immediately after the northern kingdom was sent into exile by the Assyrians.  The biblical narrative attributes the destruction of the northern kingdom to idolatry.  For the author(s) of the P source, there is only one means of mediation between Israel (the whole nation) and God, and that is through the priestly service at the appointed Altar.  Richard Elliott Friedman writes:

For the author of P, it is the larger principle that the consecrated priests are the only intermediaries between humans and God.  In the P versions of the stories, there are no angels.  There are no talking animals.  There are no dreams.  Even the word “prophet” does not occur in P except once, and there it refers to Aaron.  In P there are no blatant anthropomorphisms.  In JE, God walks in the garden of Eden, God personally makes Adam’s and Eve’s clothes, personally closes Noah’s ark, smells Noah’s sacrifices, wrestles with Jacob, and speaks to Moses out of a burning bush.  None of these things are in P.[2]

In the P source, the priesthood and proper sacrificial protocol are the sole means of communion between God and man.  The priesthood and sacrificial system clearly take center stage in the P material.  The path to God, according to the P version, is through the sacrificial service and priesthood.  This is made very clear in the opening verses of the book of Vayiqra or Leviticus.

(Leviticus 1:1-2 NRS) YHWH summoned Moses and spoke to him from the tent of meeting, saying: ²Speak to the people of Israel and say to them: When any of you bring (yaqriv) an offering (qorban) of livestock to YHWH, you shall bring (taqriyvu) your offering (qorbankhem) from the herd or from the flock.

The critical or key word in this passage is the Hebrew root word qarav (qof, resh, vet), which means “to draw near,” “to come near,” “to approach,” or “to enter.”  When one desires to draw near to YHWH, he is to bring to the Altar a qorban (qof, resh, bet, nun) – a “gift” or “offering.”  According to the P source, no one can draw near to YHWH without the proper sacrifice or offering being made by the anointed priests at the prescribed Altar.  In the opening six chapters of the book of Vayiqra or Leviticus, the specific protocol for approaching or entering into the presence of YHWH is revealed.

Within this protocol we are given two primary classifications of qorbanot or offerings – voluntary and prescribed.  There are three voluntary offerings – the ‘olah (whole burnt offering), the minchah (grain or meal offering), and the sh^elamim (offering of well-being or peace offering).  There are two prescribed offerings – the chatta’t (sin offering) and the ’asham (guilt offering).

The instructions for making these offerings follow a specific pattern: the category (voluntary or prescribed); the type of offering (‘olah, minchah, sh^elamim, chatta’t, or ’asham); the offering content (ox, bull, ram, lamb, goat, bird, or grain); and, finally, the procedure for the offering.  We see this pattern of protocol in the “if/then” language of the instructions.  Let us look at this pattern first in the voluntary offerings.

Voluntary Offering

(Leviticus 1:2 NRS) Speak to the people of Israel and say to them: When any of you bring an offering of livestock to YHWH, you shall bring your offering from the herd or from the flock.

The choice to bring the offering is clearly based upon one’s personal desire to draw near to the Holy One.  There is no commandment demanding that the believer bring such an offering.  The language is “when,” not “must.”  The offering being discussed is, therefore, a voluntary offering.  Next, the believer must choose what type of voluntary offering is going to be made, an ‘olah, a minchah, or a sh^elamim.

The ‘Olah Offering

(Leviticus 1:3 NRS) If the offering is a burnt offering (‘olah)…

If the believer is bringing an ‘olah offering, then he or she must choose whether the animal will be from the herd of cattle, the flock of sheep and goats, or the flock of birds.

The Animal

The Herd of Cattle

(Leviticus 1:3 NRS) If the offering is a burnt offering from the herd, you shall offer a male without blemish; you shall bring it to the entrance of the tent of meeting, for acceptance in your behalf before YHWH.

The Flock of Sheep and Goats

(Leviticus 1:10 NRS) If your gift for a burnt offering is from the flock, from the sheep or goats, your offering shall be a male without blemish.

The Flock of Birds

(Leviticus 1:14 NRS) If your offering to YHWH is a burnt offering of birds, you shall choose your offering from turtledoves or pigeons.

Once these choices are made, the prescribed procedure for each of these various animal groups is given.

The Procedure

The Procedure for Offering Cattle

(Leviticus 1:3-9 NRS) If the offering is a burnt offering from the herd, you shall offer a male without blemish; you shall bring it to the entrance of the tent of meeting, for acceptance in your behalf before YHWH.  ⁴You shall lay your hand on the head of the burnt offering, and it shall be acceptable in your behalf as atonement for you.  ⁵The bull shall be slaughtered before YHWH; and Aaron’s sons the priests shall offer the blood, dashing the blood against all sides of the altar that is at the entrance of the tent of meeting.  ⁶The burnt offering shall be flayed and cut up into its parts.  ⁷The sons of the priest Aaron shall put fire on the altar and arrange wood on the fire.  ⁸Aaron’s sons the priests shall arrange the parts, with the head and the suet, on the wood that is on the fire on the altar; ⁹but its entrails and its legs shall be washed with water.  Then the priest shall turn the whole into smoke on the altar as a burnt offering, an offering by fire of pleasing odor to YHWH.

 The Procedure for Offering Sheep and Goats

(Leviticus 1:10-13 NRS) If your gift for a burnt offering is from the flock, from the sheep or goats, your offering shall be a male without blemish.  ¹¹It shall be slaughtered on the north side of the altar before YHWH, and Aaron’s sons the priests shall dash its blood against all sides of the altar.  ¹²It shall be cut up into its parts, with its head and its suet, and the priest shall arrange them on the wood that is on the fire on the altar; ¹³but the entrails and the legs shall be washed with water.  Then the priest shall offer the whole and turn it into smoke on the altar; it is a burnt offering, an offering by fire of pleasing odor to YHWH.

The Procedure for Offering Birds

(Leviticus 1:14-17 NRS) If your offering to YHWH is a burnt offering of birds, you shall choose your offering from turtledoves or pigeons.  ¹⁵The priest shall bring it to the altar and wring off its head, and turn it into smoke on the altar; and its blood shall be drained out against the side of the altar.  ¹⁶He shall remove its crop with its contents and throw it at the east side of the altar, in the place for ashes.  ¹⁷He shall tear it open by its wings without severing it.  Then the priest shall turn it into smoke on the altar, on the wood that is on the fire; it is a burnt offering, an offering by fire of pleasing odor to YHWH.

The same pattern of category of offering, type of offering, and procedure followed is given concerning the voluntary minchah and sh^elamim offerings.

Voluntary Offering

(Leviticus 2:1 NRS) When anyone presents a grain offering to YHWH…

There is no commandment demanding that a believer bring this offering.  The word “when” makes this offering a voluntary offering.

The Minchah Offering

(Leviticus 2:1 NRS) When anyone presents a grain (minchah) offering to YHWH…

Once the believer determines to voluntarily bring a minchah offering, the content of the offering must be determined.  There are basically two categories of the minchah offering – raw or baked.

Raw Offering

(Leviticus 2:1 NRS) When anyone presents a grain offering to YHWH, the offering shall be of choice flour…

(Leviticus 2:14 NRS) If you bring a grain offering of first fruits to YHWH, you shall bring as the grain offering of your first fruits coarse new grain from fresh ears, parched with fire.

The raw offering may be given in the form of parched ears of grain, loose grain, coarsely ground grain, or fine flour.

Baked Offering

(Leviticus 2:4 NRS) When you present a grain offering baked in the oven…

(Leviticus 2:5 NRS) If your offering is grain prepared on a griddle, it shall be of choice flour…

(Leviticus 2:7 NRS) If your offering is grain prepared in a pan…

Three choices are given for baking the minchah offering – in an oven, on a griddle, or in a pan.

The Ornamentation and Preparation of the Minchah

Raw Offerings

(Leviticus 2:1-2 NRS) When anyone presents a grain offering to YHWH, the offering shall be of choice flour; the worshipper shall pour oil on it, and put frankincense on it, ²and bring it to Aaron’s sons the priests.  After taking from it a handful of the choice flour and oil, with all its frankincense, the priest shall turn this token portion into smoke on the altar, an offering by fire of pleasing odor to YHWH.

(Leviticus 2:14-15 NRS) If you bring a grain offering of first fruits to YHWH, you shall bring as the grain offering of your first fruits coarse new grain from fresh ears, parched with fire.  ¹⁵You shall add oil to it and lay frankincense on it; it is a grain offering.

When the minchah offering is presented in the raw form, it is generally enhanced by the inclusion of both oil and frankincense.

Baked Offerings

(Leviticus 2:4-7 NRS) When you present a grain offering baked in the oven, it shall be of choice flour: unleavened cakes mixed with oil, or unleavened wafers spread with oil.  ⁵If your offering is grain prepared on a griddle, it shall be of choice flour mixed with oil, unleavened; ⁶break it in pieces, and pour oil on it; it is a grain offering.  If your offering is grain prepared in a pan, it shall be made of choice flour in oil.

Here we should note that the baked offerings are sprinkled, mixed, or baked with oil but lack incense.

The Procedure

The Procedure for the Raw Minchah Offering

Fine Flour

(Leviticus 2:1-3 NRS) When anyone presents a grain offering to YHWH, the offering shall be of choice flour; the worshipper shall pour oil on it, and put frankincense on it, ²and bring it to Aaron’s sons the priests.  After taking from it a handful of the choice flour and oil, with all its frankincense, the priest shall turn this token portion into smoke on the altar, an offering by fire of pleasing odor to YHWH.  ³And what is left of the grain offering shall be for Aaron and his sons, a most holy part of the offerings by fire to YHWH.

Parched Grain

(Leviticus 2:14-16 NRS) If you bring a grain offering of first fruits to YHWH, you shall bring as the grain offering of your first fruits coarse new grain from fresh ears, parched with fire.  ¹⁵You shall add oil to it and lay frankincense on it; it is a grain offering.  ¹⁶And the priest shall turn a token portion of it into smoke – some of the coarse grain and oil with all its frankincense; it is an offering by fire to YHWH.

The Procedure for the Baked Minchah Offering

(Leviticus 2:4-10 NRS) When you present a grain offering baked in the oven, it shall be of choice flour: unleavened cakes mixed with oil, or unleavened wafers spread with oil.  ⁵If your offering is grain prepared on a griddle, it shall be of choice flour mixed with oil, unleavened; ⁶break it in pieces, and pour oil on it; it is a grain offering.  ⁷If your offering is grain prepared in a pan, it shall be made of choice flour in oil.  ⁸You shall bring to YHWH the grain offering that is prepared in any of these ways; and when it is presented to the priest, he shall take it to the altar.  ⁹The priest shall remove from the grain offering its token portion and turn this into smoke on the altar, an offering by fire of pleasing odor to YHWH.  ¹⁰And what is left of the grain offering shall be for Aaron and his sons; it is a most holy part of the offerings by fire to YHWH.

Additional Instructions for the Minchah Offering

(Leviticus 2:11-13 NRS) No grain offering that you bring to YHWH shall be made with leaven, for you must not turn any leaven or honey into smoke as an offering by fire to YHWH.  ¹²You may bring them to YHWH as an offering of choice products, but they shall not be offered on the altar for a pleasing odor.  ¹³You shall not omit from your grain offerings the salt of the covenant with your God; with all your offerings you shall offer salt.

The same pattern is present in the final voluntary offering, the sh^elamim offering.

Voluntary Offering

The Sh^elamim Offering

From the Herd of Cattle

(Leviticus 3:1 NRS) If the offering is a sacrifice of well-being, if you offer an animal of the herd, whether male or female, you shall offer one without blemish before YHWH.

From The Flock of Sheep and Goats

(Leviticus 3:6 NRS) If your offering for a sacrifice of well-being to YHWH is from the flock, male or female, you shall offer one without blemish.

The Procedure

The Procedure for Offering Cattle

(Leviticus 3:1-5 NRS) If the offering is a sacrifice of well-being, if you offer an animal of the herd, whether male or female, you shall offer one without blemish before YHWH.  ²You shall lay your hand on the head of the offering and slaughter it at the entrance of the tent of meeting; and Aaron’s sons the priests shall dash the blood against all sides of the altar.  ³You shall offer from the sacrifice of well-being, as an offering by fire to YHWH, the fat that covers the entrails and all the fat that is around the entrails; ⁴the two kidneys with the fat that is on them at the loins, and the appendage of the liver, which he shall remove with the kidneys.  ⁵Then Aaron’s sons shall turn these into smoke on the altar, with the burnt offering that is on the wood on the fire, as an offering by fire of pleasing odor to YHWH.

The Procedure for Offering Sheep

(Leviticus 3:6-11 NRS) If your offering for a sacrifice of well-being to YHWH is from the flock, male or female, you shall offer one without blemish.  ⁷If you present a sheep as your offering, you shall bring it before YHWH ⁸and lay your hand on the head of the offering.  It shall be slaughtered before the tent of meeting, and Aaron’s sons shall dash its blood against all sides of the altar.  ⁹You shall present its fat from the sacrifice of well-being, as an offering by fire to YHWH: the whole broad tail, which shall be removed close to the backbone, the fat that covers the entrails, and all the fat that is around the entrails; ¹⁰the two kidneys with the fat that is on them at the loins, and the appendage of the liver, which you shall remove with the kidneys.  ¹¹Then the priest shall turn these into smoke on the altar as a food offering by fire to YHWH.

The Procedure for Offering Goats

(Leviticus 3:12-16 NRS) If your offering is a goat, you shall bring it before YHWH ¹³and lay your hand on its head; it shall be slaughtered before the tent of meeting; and the sons of Aaron shall dash its blood against all sides of the altar.  ¹⁴You shall present as your offering from it, as an offering by fire to YHWH, the fat that covers the entrails, and all the fat that is around the entrails; ¹⁵the two kidneys with the fat that is on them at the loins, and the appendage of the liver, which you shall remove with the kidneys.  ¹⁶Then the priest shall turn these into smoke on the altar as a food offering by fire for a pleasing odor.

Additional Instructions for All Animal Offerings

(Leviticus 3:16-17 NRS) …All fat is YHWH’S.  ¹⁷It shall be a perpetual statute throughout your generations, in all your settlements: you must not eat any fat or any blood.

According to the priestly writers, compliance with the proper protocol of voluntary offerings is the only acceptable expression of one’s desire to draw near to the Holy One of Israel.  These voluntary offerings present the Israelite with an acceptable expression of faith and love for the Holy One.  These voluntary offerings are understood to be “food” offerings as a sign of breaking bread or sharing a meal with the Holy One.  We should remember that hospitality in the ancient Near East was understood as a sign of intimacy.  The Altar service ofIsraelis likewise understood to be a sacred expression of hospitality and a sign of great intimacy with the God of Israel.

While the protocol itself is rooted in divine revelation, we should understand these voluntary offerings as the expression of the believer’s desire to draw near to and be intimate with YHWH.  The prescribed offerings, on the other hand, should be understood as the expression of YHWH’S desire to draw near to the believer, even in spite of his sin.  Through the prescription of the chatta’t and ’asham offerings, YHWH has made provision for those guilty of inadvertent sin to be reconciled with Him so that communion may be restored for the individual believer and YHWH may continue to abide communally among His people.

The Hebrew word chatta’h (chet, tet, aleph), which is generally translated as “to sin,” is borrowed from the field of archery and literally means “to fall short,” “to miss the mark,” “to go wrong,” or “to go astray.”  Chatta’h is a description of an arrow somehow failing to reach its intended target.   When applied to our priestly calling to be the image of God – the mediator of His Word, will, and grace as His covenant partner – the term “sin” means that we have in some way violated the Torah.  It is, according to our portion, possible for anyone, including the High Priest, the King, and even the whole people ofIsrael, to fall short of this calling.

(Leviticus 4:3 NRS) If it is the anointed priest who sins, thus bringing guilt on the people, he shall offer for the sin that he has committed a bull of the herd without blemish as a sin offering to YHWH.

(Leviticus 4:13 NRS) If the whole congregation of Israel errs unintentionally and the matter escapes the notice of the assembly, and they do any one of the things that by YHWH’S commandments ought not to be done and incur guilt…

(Leviticus 4:22 NRS) When a ruler sins, doing unintentionally any one of all the things that by commandments of YHWH his God ought not to be done and incurs guilt…

(Leviticus 4:27 NRS) If anyone of the ordinary people among you sins unintentionally in doing any one of the things that by YHWH’S commandments ought not to be done and incurs guilt…

Position is clearly not protection against falling short of the mark set for us by YHWH.  As the apostle Shaul declared, we have all fallen short of the glory of God.

(Romans 3:23 NRS) …all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.

The omniscient Creator of the universe understood man’s finite nature and recognized that we would, from time to time, stumble and miss the mark of our sacred calling.  To “keep the Torah” does not imply that we will be without sin; it implies that when we realize our sin, we take full advantage of the provision YHWH made for us to be restored to communion with Him.  It is also important to recognize that this provision for sin is specifically for inadvertent or unintentional sin.

(Leviticus 4:13 NRS) If the whole congregation of Israel errs unintentionally and the matter escapes the notice of the assembly, and they do any one of the things that by YHWH’S commandments ought not to be done and incur guilt…

(Leviticus 4:22 NRS) When a ruler sins, doing unintentionally any one of all the things that by commandments of YHWH his God ought not to be done and incurs guilt…

(Leviticus 4:27 NRS) If anyone of the ordinary people among you sins unintentionally in doing any one of the things that by YHWH’S commandments ought not to be done and incurs guilt…

The Hebrew root word shagag (shin, gimmel, gimmel) means “to go astray,” “to sin inadvertently,” “to sin in ignorance,” or “to sin unintentionally.”  An example of such a sin may be unknowingly eating something that contains a tamei (unclean) ingredient and then eating the sanctified flesh of the sh^elamim offering.  Eating the sanctified meat while in a state of tamei is expressly forbidden by the Torah.

(Leviticus 7:20 NRS) But those who eat flesh from YHWH’S sacrifice of well-being while in a state of uncleanness shall be cut off from their kin.

If, after one has eaten of the sanctified flesh of a sh^elamim offering, it is discovered that one has done so in an unclean state, then the appropriate action is to offer the appropriate chatta’t offering.  It should be very clear that the chatta’t offering is only for unintentional sin.

Intentional sins are dealt with through a completely different process which involves confession and restitution before any reconciliation with YHWH through the Altar may occur.

(Leviticus 5:5 NRS) When you realize your guilt in any of these, you shall confess the sin that you have committed.

(Leviticus 5:16 NRS) And you shall make restitution for the holy thing in which you were remiss, and shall add one-fifth to it and give it to the priest.  The priest shall make atonement on your behalf with the ram of the guilt offering, and you shall be forgiven.

While these provisions boldly declare the grace of YHWH toward fallible and sinful people, there is clearly no concept of cheap grace in the Torah.  The offerings are to be brought by the people from their own herds, flocks, and fields.  Let us note that only domestic animals are used for these offerings.  Wild animals are understood to belong to the Creator.  Offerings are made at a cost to the one making the offering.  It is also clear that before there can be reconciliation, there must be restitution.  YHWH’S attribute of grace is always held in tension with His attribute of justice.

We should, however, recognize that the entire sacrificial system instituted by YHWH proclaims His constant desire to be one with His people.

LEADER: We gather together this night as the children of Israel in celebration and gratitude of YHWH’S love, mercy, faithfulness and deliverance.

PEOPLE: Hallelujah! Blessed be YHWH the Sovereign of the Universe who fulfilled his promises to our fathers and blessed his people with freedom.

LEADER: YHWH has commanded that his people remember these events and rehearse them in the ears of their children, from generation to generation and to celebrate these events from year to year.

READER: Then YHWH said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh; for I have hardened his heart and the heart of his officials, in order that I may show these signs of mine among them,and that you may tell your children and grandchildren how I have made fools of the Egyptians and what signs I have done among them– so that you may know that I am YHWH.”  (Exodus 10:1-2 NRS)

READER:  This day shall be a day of remembrance for you. You shall celebrate it as a festival to YHWH; throughout your generations you shall observe it as a perpetual ordinance. (Exodus 12:14 NRS)

LEADER: Tonight, therefore, we fulfill this commandment and recall all that YHWH has done for us.

PEOPLE: Hallelujah! Blessed be YHWH the Sovereign of the Universe.

THE CHILDREN: What do you mean by this observance?

THE PEOPLE: ‘It is the Passover sacrifice to YHWH, for he passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt, when he struck down the Egyptians but spared our houses.’ And the people bowed down and worshiped.”  (Exodus 12:27 NRS)

LEADER:  In the Hebrew mind “to remember” is more than just recalling the past.  For the Hebrew “to remember” is to relive the events recalled in the present.  By remembering/reliving the events leading up to the exodus from Egypt the children of Israel of every generation is given an opportunity to experience this great deliverance for him or herself.  Thus every Israelite of every generation may declare:

PEOPLE:  Blessed be YHWH who has delivered ME from bondage!

LEADER: It is important that right from the start we recognize that this celebration is a celebration of our PAST, our PRESENT, and our FUTURE.  Therefore, we celebrate all three of these aspects throughout the course of this night.

THE STORY BEGINS

LEADER: The story of our deliverance begins, not in Egypt but in the land of Canaan, where YHWH made a promise to our father Abraham.

READER: Then YHWH said to Abram, “Know this for certain, that your offspring shall be aliens in a land that is not theirs, and shall be slaves there, and they shall be oppressed for four hundred years;but I will bring judgment on the nation that they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions.  As for yourself, you shall go to your ancestors in peace; you shall be buried in a good old age.And they shall come back here in the fourth generation; for the iniquity of the Amorites is not yet complete.”  (Genesis 15:13-16 NRS)[1]

LEADER:  In preparation for Israel’s arrival in Egypt, YHWH sent Joseph to prepare a place for the children of Israel.  A great famine in the land of Canaan drove the children of Israel out of the Promise Land and into the land of Egypt.  But even there, YHWH promised our father Jacob that he would be with him.

READER: Then he said, “I am God, the God of your father; do not be afraid to go down to Egypt, for I will make of you a great nation there.I myself will go down with you to Egypt, and I will also bring you up again; and Joseph’s own hand shall close your eyes.”  (Genesis 46:3-4 NRS)

LEADER: The Pharaoh and the Egyptians were blessed by Joseph’s presence. Pharaoh gave the children of Israel the best land of Egypt for a possession.

READER: The land of Egypt is before you; settle your father and your brothers in the best part of the land; let them live in the land of Goshen; and if you know that there are capable men among them, put them in charge of my livestock.”  (Genesis 47:6 NRS)

READER: Thus Israel settled in the land of Egypt, in the region of Goshen; and they gained possessions in it, and were fruitful and multiplied exceedingly.  (Genesis 47:27 NRS)

*(dates, apples, apricots, or other sweets are eaten to symbolize the original sweetness of Egypt)

LEADER: But the land of Goshen began to possess the children of Israel. Instead of returning to the Land of Promised to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their descendents, the children of Israel chose to remain in the land of Goshen in Egypt.

READER: After he had buried his father, Joseph returned to Egypt with his brothers and all who had gone up with him to bury his father.  (Genesis 50:14 NRS)

READER: Thus Israel settled in the land of Egypt, in the region of Goshen; and they gained possessions in it, and were fruitful and multiplied exceedingly.  (Genesis 47:27 NRS)

LEADER: Once again YHWH promised through Joseph that he would visit his people and lead them again to the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their descendents.

READER: Then Joseph said to his brothers, “I am about to die; but God will surely come to you, and bring you up out of this land to the land that he swore to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob.” (Genesis 50:24 NRS)

LEADER: But the children of Israel remained in Egypt and became fruitful and multiplied.  In time there rose up a Pharaoh that did not remember Joseph and his blessings to the Egyptians. The new Pharaoh feared the multitude of Israel.

READER: But the Israelites were fruitful and prolific; they multiplied and grew exceedingly strong, so that the land was filled with them.Now a new king arose over Egypt, who did not know Joseph.He said to his people, “Look, the Israelite people are more numerous and more powerful than we.Come, let us deal shrewdly with them, or they will increase and, in the event of war, join our enemies and fight against us and escape from the land.”  (Exodus 1:7-10 NRS)

LEADER:  Out of fear, Pharaoh began to persecute the children of Israel.  Pharaoh set taskmasters over them to afflict them.  But the more he afflicted them the more they multiplied.  Then he made their lives bitter with hard bondage.

READER: Therefore they set taskmasters over them to oppress them with forced labor. They built supply cities, Pithom and Ramses, for Pharaoh.  But the more they were oppressed, the more they multiplied and spread, so that the Egyptians came to dread the Israelites.The Egyptians became ruthless in imposing tasks on the Israelites,and made their lives bitter with hard service in mortar and brick and in every kind of field labor. They were ruthless in all the tasks that they imposed on them. (Exodus 1:11-14 NRS)

*(We make a sandwich of unleavened bread and horseradish and bitter herbs to remember the making of bricks and the building of Pharaoh’s treasure houses)

LEADER: Pharaoh schemed to kill the male children of Israel, instructing the midwives to kill every newborn male child. When this plan failed Pharaoh ordered that all the newborn male children of Israel be thrown into the river.

READER: The king of Egypt said to the Hebrew midwives, one of whom was named Shiphrah and the other Puah, ¹⁶ “When you act as midwives to the Hebrew women, and see them on the birthstool, if it is a boy, kill him; but if it is a girl, she shall live.”  (Exodus 1:15-16 NRS)

READER: But the midwives feared God; they did not do as the king of Egypt commanded them, but they let the boys live.  (Exodus 1:17 NRS)

READER: Then Pharaoh commanded all his people, “Every boy that is born to the Hebrews you shall throw into the Nile, but you shall let every girl live.”  (Exodus 1:22 NRS)

*(We dip bitter herbs into salt water and eat it, to remember the bitter tears of our people lamenting for their children.)

LEADER:  It was at this time that Moses was born and set adrift in an ark in the Nile River.  Moses was rescued by Pharaoh’s daughter and raised in Pharaoh’s court.

READER: Now a man from the house of Levi went and married a Levite woman.  The woman conceived and bore a son; and when she saw that he was a fine baby, she hid him three months. When she could hide him no longer she got a papyrus basket for him, and plastered it with bitumen and pitch; she put the child in it and placed it among the reeds on the bank of the river.His sister stood at a distance, to see what would happen to him.The daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe at the river, while her attendants walked beside the river. She saw the basket among the reeds and sent her maid to bring it.When she opened it, she saw the child. He was crying, and she took pity on him, “This must be one of the Hebrews’ children,” she said.Then his sister said to Pharaoh’s daughter, “Shall I go and get you a nurse from the Hebrew women to nurse the child for you?”Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, “Yes.” So the girl went and called the child’s mother.  (Exodus 2:1-8 NRS)

LEADER: In spite of his privileged up bringing in Pharaoh’s courts, Moses still identified with his people.

READER: By faith Moses, when he was grown up, refused to be called a son of Pharaoh’s daughter,choosing rather to share ill-treatment with the people of God than to enjoy the fleeting pleasures of sin. (Hebrews 11:24-25 NRS)  

LEADER: When Moses saw an Egyptian persecuting his Hebrew brother, Moses rose up and killed the Egyptian.

READER: One day, after Moses had grown up, he went out to his people and saw their forced labor. He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his kinsfolk.He looked this way and that, and seeing no one he killed the Egyptian and hid him in the sand. (Exodus 2:11-12 NRS) 

LEADER: When Pharaoh heard of this evil, Moses fled Egypt fearing for his life.

LEADER: In Midian, Moses became a shepherd and tended the flock of Jethro.  It was while tending Jethro’s flock that Moses encountered YHWH, the God of his fathers, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.

READER: There the angel of YHWH appeared to him in a flame of fire out of a bush; he looked, and the bush was blazing, yet it was not consumed.  (Exodus 3:2 NRS)

*(A menorah is lit to symbolize the presence of YHWH in the burning bush)

LEADER: YHWH assured Moses that he was aware of what was happening to the children of Israel in Egypt.

READER: He said further, “I am the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.” And Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at God.Then YHWH said, “I have observed the misery of my people who are in Egypt; I have heard their cry on account of their taskmasters. Indeed, I know their sufferings,and I have come down to deliver them from the Egyptians, and to bring them up out of that land to a good and broad land, a land flowing with milk and honey, to the country of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites.  (Exodus 3:6-8 NRS)

LEADER: YHWH sent Moses and his brother Aaron back to Egypt to share the good news with the children of Israel.

READER: Say therefore to the Israelites, ‘I am YHWH, and I will free you from the burdens of the Egyptians and deliver you from slavery to them. I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and with mighty acts of judgment. I will take you as my people, and I will be your God. You shall know that I am YHWH your God, who has freed you from the burdens of the Egyptians.I will bring you into the land that I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; I will give it to you for a possession. I am YHWH.’”  (Exodus 6:6-8 NRS)

LEADER: But the children of Israel were so oppressed and afflicted that they could not hear the good news that Moses brought them.

READER: Moses told this to the Israelites; but they would not listen to Moses, because of their broken spirit and their cruel slavery.  (Exodus 6:9 NRS)

LEADER: Next Moses went to Pharaoh and demanded that the children of Israel be allowed to go and serve YHWH.  But the Pharaoh ruled in arrogance….

READER: Afterward Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and said, “Thus says YHWH, the God of Israel, ‘Let my people go, so that they may celebrate a festival to me in the wilderness.’”  But Pharaoh said, “Who is YHWH, that I should heed him and let Israel go? I do not know YHWH, and I will not let Israel go.”  (Exodus 5:1-2 NRS)

LEADER: So YHWH began to introduce himself to Pharaoh the ruler of Egypt in a most spectacular way.  While Pharaoh was the ruler of Egypt, YHWH is the Sovereign Ruler of the Universe!  With ten plagues YHWH introduced himself to Pharaoh and the people of Egypt.

THE FIRST PLAGUE—BLOOD

READER: Thus says YHWH, “By this you shall know that I am YHWH.” See, with the staff that is in my hand I will strike the water that is in the Nile, and it shall be turned to blood.The fish in the river shall die, the river itself shall stink, and the Egyptians shall be unable to drink water from the Nile.’”  (Exodus 7:17-18 NRS)

READER: Moses and Aaron did just as YHWH commanded. In the sight of Pharaoh and of his officials he lifted up the staff and struck the water in the river, and all the water in the river was turned into blood,and the fish in the river died. The river stank so that the Egyptians could not drink its water, and there was blood throughout the whole land of Egypt. (Exodus 7:20-21 NRS)  

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN

THE SECOND PLAGUE—FROGS

READER: And YHWH said to Moses, “Say to Aaron, ‘Stretch out your hand with your staff over the rivers, the canals, and the pools, and make frogs come up on the land of Egypt.’”So Aaron stretched out his hand over the waters of Egypt; and the frogs came up and covered the land of Egypt.But the magicians did the same by their secret arts, and brought frogs up on the land of Egypt.Then Pharaoh called Moses and Aaron, and said, “Pray to YHWH to take away the frogs from me and my people, and I will let the people go to sacrifice to YHWH.”Moses said to Pharaoh, “Kindly tell me when I am to pray for you and for your officials and for your people, that the frogs may be removed from you and your houses and be left only in the Nile.”And he said, “Tomorrow.” Moses said, “As you say! So that you may know that there is no one like YHWH our God. (Exodus 8:5-10 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN.

THE THIRD PLAGUE—Gnats

READER: Then YHWH said to Moses, “Say to Aaron, ‘Stretch out your staff and strike the dust of the earth, so that it may become gnats throughout the whole land of Egypt.’”  And they did so; Aaron stretched out his hand with his staff and struck the dust of the earth, and gnats came on humans and animals alike; all the dust of the earth turned into gnats throughout the whole land of Egypt.  (Exodus 8:16-17 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN.

THE FOURTH PLAGUE—FLIES

READER: For if you will not let my people go, I will send swarms of flies on you, your officials, and your people, and into your houses; and the houses of the Egyptians shall be filled with swarms of flies; so also the land where they live.  But on that day I will set apart the land of Goshen, where my people live, so that no swarms of flies shall be there, that you may know that I YHWH am in this land.Thus I will make a distinction between my people and your people. This sign shall appear tomorrow.’”  YHWH did so, and great swarms of flies came into the house of Pharaoh and into his officials’ houses; in all of Egypt the land was ruined because of the flies.  (Exodus 8:21-24 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN.

THE FIFTH PLAGUE—DEADLY PESTILENCE

READER: the hand of YHWH will strike with a deadly pestilence your livestock in the field: the horses, the donkeys, the camels, the herds, and the flocks.But YHWH will make a distinction between the livestock of Israel and the livestock of Egypt, so that nothing shall die of all that belongs to the Israelites.’” (Exodus 9:3-4 NRS) 

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN.

THE SIXTH PLAGUE—BOILS

READER: Then YHWH said to Moses and Aaron, “Take handfuls of soot from the kiln, and let Moses throw it in the air in the sight of Pharaoh.It shall become fine dust all over the land of Egypt, and shall cause festering boils on humans and animals throughout the whole land of Egypt.” (Exodus 9:8-9 NRS) 

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN.

THE SEVENTH PLAGUE—HAIL

READER: YHWH said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand toward heaven so that hail may fall on the whole land of Egypt, on humans and animals and all the plants of the field in the land of Egypt.”  Then Moses stretched out his staff toward heaven, and YHWH sent thunder and hail, and fire came down on the earth. And YHWH rained hail on the land of Egypt;there was hail with fire flashing continually in the midst of it, such heavy hail as had never fallen in all the land of Egypt since it became a nation.The hail struck down everything that was in the open field throughout all the land of Egypt, both human and animal; the hail also struck down all the plants of the field, and shattered every tree in the field.  Only in the land of Goshen, where the Israelites were, there was no hail.  (Exodus 9:22-26 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN.

THE EIGHTH PLAGUE—LOCUST

READER: Then YHWH said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand over the land of Egypt, so that the locusts may come upon it and eat every plant in the land, all that the hail has left.”  So Moses stretched out his staff over the land of Egypt, and YHWH brought an east wind upon the land all that day and all that night; when morning came, the east wind had brought the locusts.The locusts came upon all the land of Egypt and settled on the whole country of Egypt, such a dense swarm of locusts as had never been before, nor ever shall be again.  (Exodus 10:12-14 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN.

THE NINTH PLAGUE—DARKNESS

*(Candles or lamps are lit and the overhead lights turned off)

READER: Then YHWH said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand toward heaven so that there may be darkness over the land of Egypt, a darkness that can be felt.”  So Moses stretched out his hand toward heaven, and there was dense darkness in all the land of Egypt for three days.  People could not see one another, and for three days they could not move from where they were; but all the Israelites had light where they lived.  (Exodus 10:21-23 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN.

THE TENTH PLAGUE—DEATH OF THE FIRSTBORN

LEADER: After each of these plagues Pharaoh hardened his heart and would not let the children of Israel go.  YHWH had one more plague in store for Pharaoh and his people.

READER: Then you shall say to Pharaoh, ‘Thus says YHWH: Israel is my firstborn son.I said to you, “Let my son go that he may worship me.” But you refused to let him go; now I will kill your firstborn son.’”  (Exodus 4:22-23 NRS)

READER: Moses said, “Thus says YHWH: About midnight I will go out through Egypt.  Every firstborn in the land of Egypt shall die, from the firstborn of Pharaoh who sits on his throne to the firstborn of the female slave who is behind the hand-mill, and all the firstborn of the livestock.Then there will be a loud cry throughout the whole land of Egypt, such as has never been or will ever be again.But not a dog shall growl at any of the Israelites– not at people, not at animals– so that you may know that YHWH makes a distinction between Egypt and Israel. (Exodus 11:4-7 NRS) 

THE PEOPLE: YHWH, HAVE MERCY ON US, PROTECT US AND DELIVER US! AMEN.

*(All of the FIRSTBORN stand up)

LEADER: While death was certain upon the firstborn of Egypt, YHWH had made provision for the children of Israel. Four days prior to this night YHWH commanded that the children of Israel choose a male lamb or kid of a year old, and bring it into their home.  On the 14^th day of the first biblical month the children of Israel were told to slaughter the lamb on the threshold of their homes, to take a branch of hyssop and to apply the blood upon the two doorposts and the lintel above the door to their home.

*(Place red ribbons on the door frames of the house as a symbol of the blood of the lamb)

LEADER: This blood was to be a sign for the children of Israel and a sign to YHWH.  For the children of Israel the blood was a sign that YHWH had made a provision for the children of Israel to protect them from judgment and secure their release from bondage.  For YHWH the blood was a sign that the children of Israel had faith in his promise and provision.

READER: Then Moses called all the elders of Israel and said to them, “Go, select lambs for your families, and slaughter the Passover lamb.  Take a bunch of hyssop, dip it in the blood that is in the basin, and touch the lintel and the two doorposts with the blood in the basin. None of you shall go outside the door of your house until morning.For YHWH will pass through to strike down the Egyptians; when he sees the blood on the lintel and on the two doorposts, YHWH will pass over that door and will not allow the destroyer to enter your houses to strike you down.  (Exodus 12:21-23 NRS)

That night the children were to eat a very special meal.  YHWH gave specific instructions for when, what, and how the meal was to be eaten.

READER: They shall eat the lamb that same night; they shall eat it roasted over the fire with unleavened bread and bitter herbs.  Do not eat any of it raw or boiled in water, but roasted over the fire, with its head, legs, and inner organs.  You shall let none of it remain until the morning; anything that remains until the morning you shall burn.This is how you shall eat it: your loins girded, your sandals on your feet, and your staff in your hand; and you shall eat it hurriedly. It is the Passover of YHWH. (Exodus 12:8-11 NRS) 

LEADER: That night while the children of Israel ate the Passover—YHWH went throughout all the land of Egypt smiting all the firstborn from beasts in the field to Pharaoh’s palace.

READER: At midnight YHWH struck down all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh who sat on his throne to the firstborn of the prisoner who was in the dungeon, and all the firstborn of the livestock.(Exodus 12:29NRS)

LEADER: For this reason, we are to consecrate all the firstborn of man and beast to YHWH.

READER: “When YHWH has brought you into the land of the Canaanites, as he swore to you and your ancestors, and has given it to you,  you shall set apart to YHWH all that first opens the womb. All the firstborn of your livestock that are males shall be YHWH’S.But every firstborn donkey you shall redeem with a sheep; if you do not redeem it, you must break its neck. Every firstborn male among your children you shall redeem.  When in the future your child asks you, ‘What does this mean?’ you shall answer, ‘By strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery.  When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, YHWH killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals. Therefore I sacrifice to YHWH every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.’It shall serve as a sign on your hand and as an emblem on your forehead that by strength of hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt.”  (Exodus 13:11-16 NRS)

LEADER: After the death of the firstborn in Egypt, Pharaoh and the Egyptians pleaded with the people of Israel to leave their land.

READER: Pharaoh arose in the night, he and all his officials and all the Egyptians; and there was a loud cry in Egypt, for there was not a house without someone dead.Then he summoned Moses and Aaron in the night, and said, “Rise up, go away from my people, both you and the Israelites! Go, worship YHWH, as you said.Take your flocks and your herds, as you said, and be gone. And bring a blessing on me too!”  The Egyptians urged the people to hasten their departure from the land, for they said, “We shall all be dead.”  So the people took their dough before it was leavened, with their kneading bowls wrapped up in their cloaks on their shoulders.The Israelites had done as Moses told them; they had asked the Egyptians for jewelry of silver and gold, and for clothing,and YHWH had given the people favor in the sight of the Egyptians, so that they let them have what they asked. And so they plundered the Egyptians.The Israelites journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot, besides children.  A mixed crowd also went up with them, and livestock in great numbers, both flocks and herds.  They baked unleavened cakes of the dough that they had brought out of Egypt; it was not leavened, because they were driven out of Egypt and could not wait, nor had they prepared any provisions for themselves.  (Exodus 12:30-39 NRS)

READER: That very day YHWH brought the Israelites out of the land of Egypt, company by company.  (Exodus 12:51 NRS)

LEADER: The children of Israel left Egypt with such haste that there was no time for their bread to leaven, therefore they did bake unleavened bread to eat on their journey.

READER: So the people took their dough before it was leavened, with their kneading bowls wrapped up in their cloaks on their shoulders. (Exodus 12:34 NRS) 

READER: They baked unleavened cakes of the dough that they had brought out of Egypt; it was not leavened, because they were driven out of Egypt and could not wait, nor had they prepared any provisions for themselves.  (Exodus 12:39 NRS)

LEADER: To commemorate these events YHWH commanded the children of Israel that they should remove all the leaven from their homes and to eat unleavened bread for seven days.

READER: Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread; on the first day you shall remove leaven from your houses, for whoever eats leavened bread from the first day until the seventh day shall be cut off from Israel.On the first day you shall hold a solemn assembly, and on the seventh day a solemn assembly; no work shall be done on those days; only what everyone must eat, that alone may be prepared by you.You shall observe the festival of unleavened bread, for on this very day I brought your companies out of the land of Egypt: you shall observe this day throughout your generations as a perpetual ordinance. (Exodus 12:15-17 NRS)  

LEADER: Once Israel left Egypt Pharaoh hardened his heart once more and foolishly pursued after the children of Israel.

READER: When the king of Egypt was told that the people had fled, the minds of Pharaoh and his officials were changed toward the people, and they said, “What have we done, letting Israel leave our service?”So he had his chariot made ready, and took his army with him;he took six hundred picked chariots and all the other chariots of Egypt with officers over all of them.YHWH hardened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt and he pursued the Israelites, who were going out boldly. (Exodus 14:5-8 NRS) 

LEADER: Once again YHWH intervened for the children of Israel.  With the mighty blast of his nostril YHWH miraculously parted the Red Sea so that the children of Israel could pass safely through it on dry ground.

READER: Then YHWH said to Moses, “Why do you cry out to me? Tell the Israelites to go forward.But you lift up your staff, and stretch out your hand over the sea and divide it, that the Israelites may go into the sea on dry ground.Then I will harden the hearts of the Egyptians so that they will go in after them; and so I will gain glory for myself over Pharaoh and all his army, his chariots, and his chariot drivers.And the Egyptians shall know that I am YHWH, when I have gained glory for myself over Pharaoh, his chariots, and his chariot drivers.”  (Exodus 14:15-18 NRS)

READER: Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea. YHWH drove the sea back by a strong east wind all night, and turned the sea into dry land; and the waters were divided.The Israelites went into the sea on dry ground, the waters forming a wall for them on their right and on their left.  (Exodus 14:21-22 NRS)

LEADER: When Pharaoh entered the sea, however, the walls of water closed in around him and Pharaoh and his army were destroyed.  Moses and the children of Israel sang for joy on the distant shore.

READERS: The Egyptians pursued, and went into the sea after them, all of Pharaoh’s horses, chariots, and chariot drivers.At the morning watch YHWH in the pillar of fire and cloud looked down upon the Egyptian army, and threw the Egyptian army into panic.He clogged their chariot wheels so that they turned with difficulty. The Egyptians said, “Let us flee from the Israelites, for YHWH is fighting for them against Egypt.”  Then YHWH said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand over the sea, so that the water may come back upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots and chariot drivers.”  So Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and at dawn the sea returned to its normal depth. As the Egyptians fled before it, YHWH tossed the Egyptians into the sea.  The waters returned and covered the chariots and the chariot drivers, the entire army of Pharaoh that had followed them into the sea; not one of them remained.But the Israelites walked on dry ground through the sea, the waters forming a wall for them on their right and on their left.Thus YHWH saved Israel that day from the Egyptians; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the seashore.Israel saw the great work that YHWH did against the Egyptians. So the people feared YHWH and believed in YHWH and in his servant Moses.  (Exodus 14:23-31 NRS)

LEADER: Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to YHWH:

THE PEOPLE: “I will sing to YHWH, for he has triumphed gloriously; horse and rider he has thrown into the sea.YHWH is my strength and my might, and he has become my salvation; this is my God, and I will praise him, my father’s God, and I will exalt him.  (Exodus 15:1-2 NRS)

LEADER: So it is this night that we celebrate what YHWH has done for us.

THE PEOPLE: YHWH has done great things for us, let his name be praised! Hallelujah!

LEADER: But as we prepare to eat this meal let us understand its symbols.

THE PEOPLE: The LAMB that is slain is YHWH’S PROVISION for our deliverance.

The MATZAH is the symbol of a leaven free life, a life committed to living the pure Torah. The BITTER HERBS are a reminder of the bitterness we endured while living in the pollution and oppression of Egypt.

LEADER: The Apostle Shaul taught us that everything that happened to Israel was for our example.  Therefore, we should understand that our forefathers’ deliverance from bondage in Egypt is a shadow picture of yet another great deliverance.

READER: These things happened to them to serve as an example, and they were written down to instruct us, on whom the ends of the ages have come.       (1 Corinthians 10:11 NRS)

LEADER: From the fall of Adam and Chavah in the beginning of the Bible, all humanity has been waiting for the promised “seed of the woman” to come and free us from bondage to sin and death.

READER: And to the man he said, “Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten of the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You shall not eat of it,’ cursed is the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life;thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you; and you shall eat the plants of the field.By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread until you return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to dust you shall return.”  (Genesis 3:17-19 NRS)

LEADER: Since the time of the fall, all humanity has been living in bondage to sin, and the fear of the death.  While many ignorantly deny it, the truth remains undeniable. We have all inherited the sin nature from our father Adam, and none of us, on our own shall escape its oppression.

READER: They answered him, “We are descendants of Abraham and have never been slaves to anyone. What do you mean by saying, ‘You will be made free’?”  Yeshua answered them, “Very truly, I tell you, everyone who commits sin is a slave to sin. (John 8:33-34 NRS)

READER: Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death came through sin, and so death spread to all because all have sinned–  (Romans 5:12 NRS)

READER: for the creation was subjected to futility, not of its own will but by the will of the one who subjected it, in hopethat the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and will obtain the freedom of the glory of the children of God.We know that the whole creation has been groaning in labor pains until now;and not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the first fruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly while we wait for adoption, the redemption of our bodies. (Romans 8:20-23 NRS)

READER: If, because of the one man’s trespass, death exercised dominion through that one, much more surely will those who receive the abundance of grace and the free gift of righteousness exercise dominion in life through the one man, Yeshua Messiah.  (Romans 5:17 NRS)

LEADER: In the events surrounding this night we should recognize the prophetic shadow picture of Yeshua our Messiah.

THE PEOPLE: “Behold the lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world”

LEADER: The bitter herbs are a symbol of the bitter affliction Yeshua endured from those who could or would not receive him.  The Matzah/Unleavened Bread is a symbol of the sinless life of Yeshua there was no mixture in him.  The lamb, whose blood is shed and applied to the door posts, is a picture of Yeshua who poured out his life blood to redeem us from a life of bondage to sin, fear, and death.

READER: Since, therefore, the children share flesh and blood, he himself likewise shared the same things, so that through death he might destroy the one who has the power of death, that is, the devil, ¹⁵  and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by the fear of death. (Hebrews 2:14-15 NRS)

READER: So if the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed. (John 8:36 NRS) 

THE PEOPLE: Blessed be YHWH our God who has made provision for our deliverance and our salvation! Blessed be Yeshua our Messiah who loved us unto death and won for us our freedom.

LEADER: Free from the tyranny of sin and death we are free to live our lives in Covenant and communion with YHWH our savior, redeemer, deliverer, protector and God.  We are free to put off the leaven of our pagan and sinful past and live exclusively for YHWH.

READER: Clean out the old yeast so that you may be a new batch, as you really are unleavened. For our paschal lamb, the Messiah, has been sacrificed.  Therefore, let us celebrate the festival, not with the old yeast, the yeast of malice and evil, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth.  (1 Corinthians 5:7-8 NRS)

READER: “Come to me, all you that are weary and are carrying heavy burdens, and I will give you rest.Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me; for I am gentle and humble in heart, and you will find rest for your souls.  For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light.” (Matthew 11:28-30 NRS) 

LEADER: From the Fall of Adam and Chavah, all humanity has been held in bondage to the tyranny and oppression of sin, fear, and death.

READER: Yeshua answered them, “Very truly, I tell you, everyone who commits sin is a slave to sin. (John 8:34 NRS)  

READER: For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Messiah Yeshua our Master.  (Romans 6:23 NRS)

READER: All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.  (Romans 3:23 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: Blessed be YHWH who through his Anointed One has set us free! 

READER: and you will know the truth, and the truth will make you free.”  (John 8:32 NRS)

READER: So if the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed.  (John 8:36 NRS)

LEADER: Tonight we eat this meal in the freedom of our redemption and the hope of salvation.

THE PEOPLE: Blessed be YHWH who has made provision for our salvation!

LEADER: Tonight we eat this meal in exile. Once again, we eat this meal under a foreign rule.  Once again, we wait for the return of the deliverer, to gather us from the four corners of the earth, and bring us again to the Land of Promise.

READER: Even if you are exiled to the ends of the world, from there YHWH your God will gather you, and from there he will bring you back.  (Deuteronomy 30:4 NRS)

READER: Do not fear, for I am with you; I will bring your offspring from the east, and from the west I will gather you;I will say to the north, “Give them up,” and to the south, “Do not withhold; bring my sons from far away and my daughters from the end of the earth–everyone who is called by my name, whom I created for my glory, whom I formed and made.”Bring forth the people who are blind, yet have eyes, who are deaf, yet have ears!  Let all the nations gather together, and let the peoples assemble. Who among them declared this, and foretold to us the former things? Let them bring their witnesses to justify them, and let them hear and say, “It is true.”  (Isaiah 43:5-9 NRS)

READER: See, the Lord YHWH comes with might, and his arm rules for him; his reward is with him, and his recompense before him.He will feed his flock like a shepherd; he will gather the lambs in his arms, and carry them in his bosom, and gently lead the mother sheep.  (Isaiah 40:10-11 NRS)

READER: Hear the word of YHWH, O nations, and declare it in the coastlands far away; say, “He who scattered Israel will gather him, and will keep him as a shepherd a flock.”  (Jeremiah 31:10 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: Tonight we eat this meal in haste and in hope, gratefully remembering

 what YHWH has done for our ancestors in the past, and joyfully anticipating what he will do for us in the future.  May YHWH our Creator, our Redeemer, our Deliverer, and our Savior be praised now and forever!  Amen.  Come Yeshua our Messiah, and establish your Kingdom!  Amen.

LEADER: Let us now eat the meal of redemption and bless the name of our Deliverer.

THE PEOPLE:  May YHWH be praised in all the earth, may his Anointed One, Yeshua our Messiah, be glorified among his people!   May YHWH bless his people with peace.  Amen.

*(A sandwich is made of matzah with horseradish on one end and dates or sweet fruit on the other end to symbolize our life moving from the bitterness of bondage to the sweetness of a redeemed life with YHWH)

The Meal is Served.

(Following the meal the final prayers are said)

LEADER: While in the wilderness the scarcity of food and water tempted the children of Israel to anxiously murmur and complain and to rebel against Moses, Aaron and YHWH.  In the Promise Land, it was prosperity that would tempt our ancestors to forget YHWH and believe that their wealth and peace was the fruit of their own labors and self-sufficiency. Moses warned the people not to forget the source of all their blessings.

READER: This entire commandment that I command you today you must diligently observe, so that you may live and increase, and go in and occupy the land that YHWH promised on oath to your ancestors. Remember the long way that YHWH your God has led you these forty years in the wilderness, in order to humble you, testing you to know what was in your heart, whether or not you would keep his commandments. He humbled you by letting you hunger, then by feeding you with manna, with which neither you nor your ancestors were acquainted, in order to make you understand that one does not live by bread alone, but by every word that comes from the mouth of YHWH.The clothes on your back did not wear out and your feet did not swell these forty years. (Deuteronomy 8:1-4 NRS)   

READER: Take care that you do not forget YHWH your God, by failing to keep his commandments, his ordinances, and his statutes, which I am commanding you today.When you have eaten your fill and have built fine houses and live in them,and when your herds and flocks have multiplied, and your silver and gold is multiplied, and all that you have is multiplied,then do not exalt yourself, forgetting YHWH your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery, who led you through the great and terrible wilderness, an arid wasteland with poisonous snakes and scorpions. He made water flow for you from flint rock,and fed you in the wilderness with manna that your ancestors did not know, to humble you and to test you, and in the end to do you good.  (Deuteronomy 8:11-16 NRS)

READER: Do not say to yourself, “My power and the might of my own hand have gotten me this wealth.”But remember YHWH your God, for it is he who gives you power to get wealth, so that he may confirm his covenant that he swore to your ancestors, as he is doing today.  (Deuteronomy 8:17-18 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: YHWH lives! Blessed be my rock, and exalted be my God, the rock of my salvation, the God who gave me vengeance and brought down peoples under me, who brought me out from my enemies; you exalted me above my adversaries, you delivered me from the violent. For this I will extol you, O YHWH, among the nations, and sing praises to your name. (2 Samuel 22:47-50 NRS)

THE PEOPLE: O give thanks to YHWH, call on his name, make known his deeds among the peoples.Sing to him, sing praises to him, tell of all his wonderful works. Glory in his holy name; let the hearts of those who seek YHWH rejoice. Seek YHWH and his strength, seek his presence continually.Remember the wonderful works he has done, his miracles, and the judgments he uttered,O offspring of his servant Israel, children of Jacob, his chosen ones.He is YHWH our God; his judgments are in all the earth. Remember his covenant forever, the word that he commanded, for a thousand generations,the covenant that he made with Abraham, his sworn promise to Isaac,which he confirmed to Jacob as a statute, to Israel as an everlasting covenant,saying, “To you I will give the land of Canaan as your portion for an inheritance.”   When they were few in number, of little account, and strangers in the land,wandering from nation to nation, from one kingdom to another people,he allowed no one to oppress them; he rebuked kings on their account,saying, “Do not touch my anointed ones; do my prophets no harm.” Sing to YHWH, all the earth. Tell of his salvation from day to day. Declare his glory among the nations, his marvelous works among all the peoples. For great is YHWH, and greatly to be praised; he is to be revered above all gods. For all the gods of the peoples are idols, but YHWH made the heavens.Honor and majesty are before him; strength and joy are in his place. Ascribe to YHWH, O families of the peoples, ascribe to YHWH glory and strength.   Ascribe to YHWH the glory due his name; bring an offering, and come before him. Worship YHWH in holy splendor;tremble before him, all the earth. The world is firmly established; it shall never be moved.Let the heavens be glad, and let the earth rejoice, and let them say among the nations, “YHWH is king!” Let the sea roar, and all that fills it; let the field exult, and everything in it.Then shall the trees of the forest sing for joy before the LORD, for he comes to judge the earth.O give thanks to YHWH, for he is good; for his steadfast love endures forever.  (1 Chronicles 16:8-34 NRS)

LEADER:

  יְבָרֶכְךָ֥ יְהוָ֖ה וְיִשְׁמְרֶֽךָ׃

   יָאֵ֙ר יְהוָ֧ה׀ פָּנָ֛יו אֵלֶ֖יךָ וִֽיחֻנֶּֽךָּ׃

יִשָּׂ֙א יְהוָ֤ה׀ פָּנָיו֙ אֵלֶ֔יךָ וְיָשֵׂ֥ם לְךָ֖ שָׁלֽוֹם׃

YHWH bless you and keep you;YHWH make his face to shine upon you, and be gracious to you;YHWH lift up his countenance upon you, and give you peace.  (Numbers 6:24-26 NRS)

THE PEOPLE:  AMEN!  NEXT YEAR IN JERUSALEM

Supplies Needed.

THE MEAL

The meal does not need to be complicated. The Bible sets the menu as lamb, unleavened bread, and bitter herbs.

For the purpose of this celebration, also needed are dates, apples, and ground or grated horseradish, saltwater for the tears, bitter herbs, and cheroset.

Cheroset Recipe:

3 Medium Gala or Fuji apples, peeled, cored and finely chopped.

1 ½ cups walnut halves, lightly toasted, cooled, and coarsely chopped

½ cup sweet red wine such as Manischewitz, Extra Heavey Malaga

1 ½ teaspoon ground cinnamon

1 Tablespoon packed brown sugar

Stir together all ingredients.  Store covered at room temperature until ready.

No yeast, malt, or vinegar should be used or present during this meal or for the next seven days.

When buying Matzah for Passover, please check the ingredients to be sure that it does not contain malt.  The label should say Kosher for Passover!

Wine is a matter of debate:  Some feel that wine is acceptable because it is used as a libation offering on the altar.  Leaven is not permitted on the altar.  Also, vinegar is described in the bible as “leavened wine,” implying a distinction between wine and vinegar.  Others argue that wine is poured out at the base of the altar not on the altar.  It does not go up in smoke.  Wine is also a product of fermentation and therefore is not acceptable for Hag HaMatzot/ Feast of Unleavened Bread.  Each group must determine for themselves the answer.

OTHER SUPPLIES:

A menorah, or oil lamp, or candles, lighter or matches.

Red Ribbon and tape

DRESS AND MANNER OF EATING

The Torah teaches that we are to eat this meal with our walking stick in hand, our “loins girded” and our shoes on our feet.  The meal is to be eaten quickly in readiness to leave when YHWH calls us.

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